INDEX →→ I. The Founders → II. The Settlers → III. The New Nation → IV. Appendix →→ TERMS OF USE © Northern Blue Publishing. A licence is required for institutional or commercial use of any material in these pages. Please read the Terms of Use.

From Canadian History Portal - HCO

---

C. New Identities - 1963-1984 → 1. Return of the Liberals: Pearson to Trudeau, 1963-1968 →→ 2. The Trudeau Years 1968-79 → 3. The Constitutional Challenge 1979-84 →→ D. Global Challenges - 1984-Present

---

1. Pearson to Trudeau - Gallery | Stories & Texts | Web Links | Student Activities | Student Projects

---

---

"Politics is an art. I have heard it called the adaptation and administration of the unintended. Sometimes it is the art of adjusting to the inevitable with the minimum of disturbance - economic, social or electoral. Nearly always it is the art of using effectively and skilfully, blunt instruments, including especially public opinion."

Lester Pearson, address, Liberal Study Conference on National Problems,
Kingston, September 6, 1960

---

From Nobel Prize to 24 Sussex Drive

The Liberals were eager to fill the void left by the departing Diefenbaker. They did so with a face familiar to Canadians. Lester Pearson had been leader of the Liberal Party since 1958, and served as Prime Minister from 1963 to 1968, winning minority governments in 1963 and 1965. With a distinguished background as a scholar and public servant, the Minister for External Affairs under the St. Laurent government, an important Canadian representative in the United Nations and North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and the recipient of the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize, Pearson had a strong public profile and was obviously experienced.

All of Pearson's diplomatic skills would be needed to keep his minority government in power in the quickly changing Canada of the 1960s. Not a dynamic speaker, he worked adroitly behind the scenes, a skill he was known for, to maneuver within the constraints of heading minority governments. In order to head-off the newly created New Democratic Party on the left of the political spectrum, Pearson’s Liberals introduced many new social programs. The most prominent involved health care and pensions. Nevertheless, Pearson was often criticized for a lack of firm leadership and direction.

Despite his previous success and reputation for successful Canadian-American relations, the cracks in North American relations began to widen a bit under Pearson. This was as much a result of Canadians' changing perceptions and desires than any particular actions by the PM. These shifting views were noticeable among the children of the baby boom, who by the 1960s were teenagers and young adults. They challenged the status quo and called into question many aspects of Canada that their parents' generation had taken for granted.

---

Top^

The Birth of Medicare

While only the Liberals or Conservatives had formed government in Canada in the 20th century, third parties made their mark. The Canadian Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (later called the New Democratic Party) and Social Credit (and its Quebec wing, the Créditistes) were the most prominent prior to to the 1980s. The CCF in particular helped initiate a number of social measures. Its most prominent contribution was in the field of health care.

Despite arguments by the medical profession that doctor-controlled and private medical insurance were better than a national government health program, public opinion polls in 1944 and in 1949 showed that 80 percent of Canadians wanted a federal health plan that would cover complete medical and hospital care for a monthly flat rate. Provincial governments began to put more money into hospitals and in 1957 a hospital insurance program with costs shared by the provinces and federal governments was implemented. Unfortunately, doctor services were not covered and there were great differences in facilities and access to health care across the country with the Atlantic Provinces and rural areas lagging behind.

In 1961 Tommy Douglas, the leader of the CCF government of Saskatchewan, introduced a universal medical insurance program and despite stiff resistance from the doctors, who went on strike, it was not only a success but became the model for Canada. In 1961, John Diefenbaker appointed Mr. Justice Emmett Hall, Chief Justice of Saskatchewan, to head up the Royal Commission on Health Services. In 1964, the Hall Commission recommended universal and comprehensive medical care when it reported to Lester Pearson’s Liberal government.

The Liberals made universal medicare a campaign issue in their 1965 election and introduced the Medical Care Act in 1966-67. The Medical Care Act, or Medicare, provided funding for provinces and territories that operated medical care programs based on these four principles: universal coverage, coverage of most medical treatments, portability of benefits, and provincial administration. By 1970 all provinces had established programs.

---

Top^

Pensions and Progress

Increasing standards of living meant that life expectancy was also on the rise. Steps were needed to secure not only the well-being of workers, but also those who had left the work force. With an eye to the future retirement of Baby Boomers and their children, a number of social assistance plans were introduced by the Pearson government in the mid-1960s.

Old Age Security had appeared in 1951, providing a monthly payment to those over the age of seventy. In 1965, the qualifying age for Old Age Security was reduced to sixty-five and a year later the Canada Pension Plan (CPP) was established. Plans for a public pension plan had been made under the Diefenbaker government, but it would take until 1965 before the final version was passed into law by the Liberals.

The contributory Canada Pension Plan (CPP) and the Quebec Pension Plan (QPP) were set up in 1966. The plans protected workers and their families from loss of income due to retirement. Recipients received benefits based on the amount they contributed. Status Indians were not included. The plans deducted money from employers and employees, and the declared income of the self-employed, according to the amount earned. It provided disability, survivor, orphan, and death benefits indexed to the cost of living.

In 1966, the Canadian government passed the Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS). It provided a 40 percent extra payment to seniors with little or no other income. The GIS helped those who would retire before they benefited from the Canada Pension Plan. It was income-tested, meaning that as the amount of income increased (to a maximum of $720 for a single pensioner), the amount of the supplement decreased.

These measures combined with the Registered Retirement Savings Plan (RRSP) of 1957 to financially prepare Canadians for leaving the workforce.

The Canada Assistance Plan (CAP), introduced in 1966, extended the principle of the 1956 cost-sharing agreement on welfare. Under this new plan, the federal government assumed half the cost of social programs adopted by the provinces. This also allowed Ottawa to set national standards for social welfare programs, as the provinces had to meet these standards to participate in the plan. Although initially underfunded, CAP came to serve a cornerstone of the Canadian welfare state.

Two more Royal Commissions were struck under Pearson - one on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, the other on the Status of Women - although both did not report until Pierre Trudeau had succeeded Pearson as Prime Minister.

---

Top^

The Economy and the Auto Pact

Anxiety about American ownership strengthened economic nationalism, which became more noticeable in the 1960s and 1970s. A number of measures to restrict foreign control were considered by Progressive Conservative and Liberal governments in the 1960s. The Royal Commission on Canada's Economic Prospects had warned about the downside of foreign ownership. Several more reports, studies, and propositions concerning American ownership would appear in the following decades. In 1968, the Watkins Report championed the creation of the Canada Development Corporation. This was created in 1971, with the task of increasing Canadian ownership and monitoring foreign investment. Walter Gordon, Pearson's first Minister of Finance, presented a number of protectionist measures to reduce American economic influence, although these did not prove popular and were abandoned.

The Canada-U.S. Automotive Products Agreement, or Auto Pact, was negotiated in 1965. It instituted free trade for automotive manufacturers, and also required that three out of every five new cars sold in Canada would also be manufactured there. The savings on tariffs benefited the American manufacturers, while the employment opportunities created by the Pact would prove to be extremely advantageous for Canadians. The Auto Pact illustrated the dilemma that Canadians and their leaders faced in relation to American trade and investment: American companies could certainly aid the Canadian economy, but at the risk of losing economic and political sovereignty.

Most of the auto manufacturing took place in Ontario, and was a great benefit to the province. It also reduced Canada's trade deficit with the United States. In fact, from 1970-71 Canada had an automobile trade surplus, and vehicles became Canada's largest export. The development of the auto industry also heralded a rise in secondary manufacturing, at the expense of primary manufacturing.

---

Top^

Organized Labour and the Trade Unions

Postwar economic prosperity boosted union membership and influence: organized labour boasted over a million members by the mid-1950s. Workers had won a number of rights in the previous decades, but conflicts between unions and employers continued. There were also clashes between workers and unions, as communist, democratic socialist, and conservative unionists held different conceptions of the labour movement. However, in 1956 the Canadian Labour Congress was formed. The majority of Canadian unions joined, thus bringing a much greater degree of unity to the labour movement.

Worker unrest continued to mount into the 1960s, and the mid-point of the decade witnessed a rash of militant strikes. Postal workers, among others, walked off the job. This action led to the federal government's Public Service Staff Relations Act in 1967. The Act extended collective bargaining rights to government employees and gave them the right to strike under certain conditions.

However, there were still many issues to be settled. While union memberships had increased in the 1950s and 19560s, the majority of Canadian workers were still not unionized. Because of links to American companies and unions, there was also concern about excessive American influence. Furthermore, Saskatchewan was the only province that legally recognized the right to strike. This was chiefly due to the fact that the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) had formed the provincial government in that province since 1944.

The CCF, a political party that ran candidates at the both the provincial and federal levels, had been an important factor in labour movements. The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation joined forces with the Canadian Labour Congress to form the New Democratic Party (NDP) in 1961. Additionally, women were generally underrepresented in the labour movements. Women had begun to return to the workforce, but usually the career choices open to them were in non-unionized jobs. In the 1960s, women made up only about 1/6 the unionized workforce.

---

Top^

The Cold War Consensus Begins to Crack

After going to the brink of nuclear war over Cuban missiles in 1962, the Cold War entered a phase, often labeled 'detente'. As war seemed less imminent, relations between the Soviet Union and the United States began to thaw. Thus, there was less need for Canada to follow American leadership and maintain high defence budgets. It seemed that while the United States was committed to maintaining a warfare state, Canada had opted for a welfare state. The number of defence personnel in the Canadian Forces decreased under Pearson, from a postwar high of 126,000 in 1962 to 106,000 by 1967.

In an attempt to further establish an independent Canadian policy and identity, while contributing to international stability, more resources were shifted to peacekeeping. This was not surprising, given that the Pearson is often credited with being the father of peacekeeping. In 1964 - around the time that the term peacekeeping gained popular use - a Canadian contingent was sent to Cyprus and the number of similar Canadian expeditions increased in the following years. Cyprus is an island in the eastern Mediterranean Sea that had gained independence from Great Britain in 1959. However, there was conflict between the Greek and Turkish communities on the island, and a United Nations peace operation was sent. Canada's involvement in Cyprus would turn out to its longest peace operation, as troops stayed until 1993.

Filling a Pearson campaign promise, nuclear warheads finally arrived on Canadian soil in 1963. This prompted much controversy and only increased the complaints that Pearson was selling out Canadian interests to the Americans. These complaints found further expression after the Canadian public took exception to the Merchant-Heeney report of 1965. It recommended that Canada and its southern neighbor regularly consult each other in a manner befitting the 'Quiet Diplomacy' that had become a trademark of Canadian-American relations. It was suggested that this closed-door, behind-the-scenes approach would result in Canada serving as a 'lap dog' to the United States.

---

Top^

Staying out of Vietnam

The movement toward detente, a nuclear test-ban treaty in 1963, and the willingness of European countries to let go off former colonial possessions in Africa and Asia all indicated that the temperature in the Cold War was dropping. But it was about to get 'hot' again in Vietnam.

Vietnam had been part of the French empire. However, with the French loss at the 1954 battle of Dienbienphu, the French decided to give up its holdings in the area. That left a political vacuum. Like Korea, Vietnam was divided, with the communists in the North and the South being ostensibly democratic. Over time, American advisers were replaced by American ground troops as the United States invoked the ‘domino theory’ which speculated that if a country or region fell under communist influence, the others around would do the same, like dominoes.The Vietnam War technically lasted from 1959 to 1975, although the years from 1965 to 1973 saw intense American military involvement.

Officially, Canada did not join the SEATO military pact, and stayed out of the Vietnam War. But, in some ways, Canada silently assisted America's efforts in Vietnam through diplomacy. Beginning in the 1950s, Canada had been a of the member of the International Control Commission which had unsuccessfully attempted to moderate and resolve the Vietnamese situation. Canadian companies sold over $10 billion worth of raw materials, equipment, and ammunition for American use in Vietnam. Somewhere between 20,000 to 30,000 Canadians volunteered and fought on the American side in Vietnam, with over a hundred casualties. Canada also become home to an estimated 50,000 American draft dodgers.

Canadian non-involvement further indicated that Canadian and Americans sometimes disagreed on the best way to fight the Cold War. At first, Canadians were divided in their support for the American role in Vietnam. However, by the late 1960s, mirroring public opinion in the United States, Canadians turned more and more against the war.

The Canadian youth counterculture had strong ties with US organizations like Students for a Democratic Society. Canadian anti-war activists encouraged American draftees to head north, and provided counsel and assistance. Draft dodgers were generally accepted as immigrants by Canadian authorities. Up to 125,000 US citizens came to Canada due to their opposition to the War, and at least half of them stayed permanently.

Pearson was renowned for his 'Quiet Diplomacy' and 'Middle Power' approach to Canadian-American relations. However, at a 1965 public speech in the United States, the Canadian PM suggested a pause in the American bombing of Vietnam so that a diplomatic solution could be explored. For his statements, Pearson received a verbal lashing from American President Lyndon Johnson. This also suggested that open criticism of American policy could be detrimental to Canada interests, for the United States could retaliate economically.

Canada provided some peacekeeping troops to monitor ceasefire agreements during the Vietnam conflict, and after the fall of Saigon in 1975, many Vietnamese refugees (the so-called "boat people") weere welcomed by Canada, and they established large communities in Vancouver, Toronto and Montréal.

---

Top^

The Baby Boomers Come of Age

The children of the Baby Boom were growing up. By the mid-1960s, over half of Canadians were under the age of 25. However, the birth rate had also began to consistently decline at the beginning of the decade. Nonetheless, it was clear that the younger generation was in the ascendancy.

To accommodate the large number of people leaving high school, and the newer focus on education as a means to getting ahead in the world, emphasis was put on post-secondary education. The number of university graduates was at record-setting levels in the 1960s, and a number of new universities were opened in the 1950s and 1960s, including the University of Victoria, Simon Fraser University, University of Calgary, Lethbridge University, University of Regina, University of Winnipeg, Trent University, University of Guelph, University of Waterloo, York University, Lakehead University, Brock University, Laurentian University, University of Windsor, Université du Québec, and Université de Moncton. In 1964, Parliament passed the Canada Student Loans Act to assist those who hoped to study at the universities. The 1960s were a vibrant time of change in Canadian popular culture. In 1966, CBC offered its first television color broadcast. It also continued to expand its range of shows, and television was well on its way to achieving a dominant position in the way Canadian spent their leisure time. However, many of these shows were American, a fact which many Canadians resented.

However, it was difficult for Canadian popular culture to avoid the influence of its North American cousin. A number of fads spread across the border. New toys, such as G.I. Joes and Barbie Dolls appealed to youngsters on both sides of the 49th parallel. The decade is also notable for the radical changes in fashion and clothing. These changes were inspired as much by aesthetics as by the desire for originality and dissatisfaction with the conservative ethos of the 1950s. Puffed up bouffant hairstyle were in vogue for women, along with go-go boots, mini-skirts and hot pants. Men's styles also underwent a renaissance. Turtlenecks, polyester suits, and bright colours were all the rage. Men began to sport long hair.

Canadians willingness to challenge the status quo also manifested itself in the arts and academia. Legendary musician Neil Young gave his first public performance in 1963 at a Winnipeg country club. The following year Marshall McLuhan, the media analyst and thinker who coined the phrase "the medium is the message," published 'Understanding Media.' Other notable scholarly works from the time period include John Porter's 'The Vertical Mosaic' and George Grant's 'Lament for a Nation.' Both Margaret Laurence and Michael Ondaatje, who would become celebrated writers, made a splash on the literary world in the mid-1960s.

---

Top^

Sidelight: The Great Northeastern Blackout Toronto During the Blackout At 5:16 pm on November 9, 1965, a power surge from Lewiston, New York's Robert Moses generating plant tripped a relay switch across the river at Ontario Hydro's Sir Adam Beck Generating Station No. 2 at Queenston, Ontario, knocking out a main power line heading into Southern Ontario. This overloaded the other lines from Beck, and they all failed. The excess power flowed back into New York State, taking down a major 345,000-volt line. For the next ten minutes, generators at plant after plant automatically switched off to prevent damage. The result was a cascade of system failures, which reached New York City by 5:27 pm, plunging the city into darkness at the height of rush hour, and trapping 800,000 people in subways and skyscrapers. Traffic lights turned off, elevators failed, and airports grew dark, with no runway lights. Rolling blackouts lasted for up to 13 1/2 hours in over 200,000 sq km of Ontario, Québec and the Northeastern US, affecting customers as far away as Timmins in the north, Florida in the south and Chicago in the west. Over 30 million people in Ontario, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hampshire lost power for most of the night, in the world's largest power blackout in history to that date. CBC Archives Blackout History Project

---

Top^

A Growing Culture of Protest

Changing social values were apparent. Birth control - the 'pill' - came on the market. Divorce became legal in 1969. This signified a breakdown in traditional conceptions of love and marriage. Fewer and fewer people attended church services. Teenagers and young adults questioned the collective wisdom of their predecessors, and often found it lacking. Having grown up in generally affluent settings, the white-picket fence and new car did not have as much appeal for them. This generation had enjoyed their formative years free of the worries and deprivations of the Depression and the Second World War. The imminent possibility of nuclear war, and the tensions of the Cold War, made little sense for many of them.

The possibility of nuclear war permeated the consciousness of Canadians. Children were taught duck-and-cover procedures in school. Families built or purchased fallout shelters, or at least kept emergency food and supplies in their basements. Fear of nuclear war had been at its peak during the Cuban Missile Crisis - Canadians watched the news and the skies with trepidation, wary of what could happen from one moment to the next.

All this led some to question what they considered the MAD-ness - M.A.D. serving as an acronym for the policy of mutually assured destruction that both the United States and the Soviet Union had seemingly adopted. - of nuclear weapons and governmental policies. A number of anti-war and anti-nuclear groups protested and campaigned for disarmament and other causes. A group called the Voice of Women advocated for peace. The number of public rallies and protest increased dramatically. Many were protests against the American role in Vietnam.

The Quiet Revolution in Québec The "Quiet Revolution" was the name given by a Toronto journalist to the intense period in Québec history in the first half of the 1960s during which the new Liberal government of Jean Lesage engaged in modernizing and secularizing the province's educational and social system. Québec Premier Jean Lesage in 1964 Some interpret the Quiet Revolution as a reaction to what they called “duplessisme”, from the name of former Prime Minister Maurice Duplessis. They saw his years as “les années noires”[1], where the province was mired in traditional values and conservatism. The period was also marked by intense social change. Liberal and leftist forces questioned the old social order, and pushed for decolonisation, civil rights and democratisation of politics and education. The movement pushed for equal and adequate accessibility for classes and regions to educational and social services, and maintaining of a social safety net for all citizens. In six short years, Québec went from being the least taxed and the least indebted of the Canadian provinces to have the highest taxes and debt. This led to the growth of a large provincial bureaucracy, with new government departments and agencies engaged in planning, state intervention, modernisation and social change. The province rapidly built a new network of state universities, public colleges, and institutions like SOQUEM, SOQUIP, and the Société générale de financement. The Quiet Revolution helped lead Québec away from the ideologies of Catholicism and ethnic survival - la survivance - to focus it on statist development, while protecting and promoting the French language, threatened by the growth of North American influences in the media. The term "French Canadian" was replaced by "Québécois". Quebeckers were determined to become masters of their destiny, to be “Maîtres chez-nous” through the intervention of the state and through the peaceful attainment of collective goals. More and more Quebeckers asked Canadians to respect the autonomy of Quebec, and its demands for equal status in Confederation. But this movement also gave rise to a powerful separatist movement and even to terrorism.

---

The Maple Leaf Flag Debate

Surprisingly, in the 1960s Canada had yet to introduce its own flag. Discussions aimed at furnishing the country with its own flag had begun at Confederation and continued sporadically over the subsequent years. However, no consensus emerged and thus the Union Jack of Great Britain remained Canada’s flag, although the Red Ensign with the Canadian badge was regularly flown for qualified purposes; the red and white colours and the maple leaf emblem were authorized by George V on November 21, 1921, as advocated by A. Fortescue Duguid.

During the election campaign of 1963, Pearson promised Canadians a new flag. Despite winning only a minority government, he decided to carry through on the commitment.

In October 1964, a specially struck Senate and House of Commons Committee of 15 members led by John Matheson came up with three possible designs:a Red Ensign with the Union Jack and with the Shield of the arms of Canada, a design incorporating three maple leafs on a white centre square with two blue borders (the so-called "Pearson Pennant"), and a red flag with a single, stylized red maple leaf with 11 points on a white square with red bars, and twice as long as it was wide.

The committee recommended the single-leaf design suggested by Dr. George Stanley, Dean of Arts at the Royal Military College in Kingston, Ontario. It was similar to the Commandant's flag at the College, a red and white combination that bore a strong sense of Canadian history. Red and white had been proclaimed Canada's national colours by King George V in 1921. The maple leaf had no official status as an emblem of Canada, but it had been used as a symbol by the St-Jean-Baptiste Society, as a motif for the 1860 visit of the Prince of Wales to Canada, on the shield of the Red Ensign, and on military uniforms as a patch.

Diefenbaker, the Conservatives, and British loyalists were aghast. They insisted on the Red Ensign, which retained the Union Jack in the top left-hand corner.

The great flag debate turned into a highly acrimonious controversy. Formal debate began in the House of Commons in mid-June 1964. As expected, it was spirited, emotional, and long. The debate continued inside the House and throughout the country. Finally, half a year later, on December 14, after a total of 250 speeches, the Liberals invoked closure. Debate was cut off and the new design was put to a final vote.

The resolution to approve the new design was accepted by a vote of 163 to 78 at 2 a.m. on December 15, 1964, followed by the Senate on December 17, 1964, and proclaimed on January 28, 1965, by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, to take effect on February 15, 1965.

On February 15, 1965, now known as Flag Day, the Red Maple Leaf became Canada’s new flag.

The New National Flag of Canada is Raised on Parliament Hill Sidelight: The Raising of the Flag At exactly 12:00 noon on February 15, 1965, before a crowd of almost 10,000, RCMP constable Joseph Secours, age 26, lowered the Red Ensign and hoisted the new Maple Leaf Flag of Canada for the first time on Parliament Hill. As the guns boomed on Nepean pin, the flag quickly caught a gust and started waving in the chill winter air. In his speech at the ceremony, Prime Minister Lester Pearson expressed his hope that, "under this flag may our youth find new inspiration for loyalty to Canada; for a patriotism based not on any mean or narrow nationalism, but on the deep and equal pride that all Canadians will feel for every part of this good land." The Maple Leaf flag raised atop the Peace Tower that day was found in Belgium in 1965, stored in a box of memorabilia by the widow of former Deputy Speaker of the House of Commons Lucien Lamoureux. She delivered it to the Canadian Embassy in Brussels and it has been put on display in Parliament. Lester Pearson, Address on the inauguration of the national flag of Canada Flags - Historica Minute - MP John Matheson, a member of the 1965 parliamentary committee to choose a national flag, surveys the many designs proposed for consideration. CPAC, On the Bright Side, Flag Day

Top^

Canada's Centennial

"As we enter our centenial year we are still a young nation, very much in the formative stages. Our national condition is still flexible enough that we can make almost anything we wish of our nation. No other country is in a better position than Canada to go ahead with the evolution of a national purpose devoted to all that is good and noble and exellent in the human spirit."

Lester Pearson

---

In 1967 Canada celebrated its 100th birthday. Canada’s Centennial was celebrated throughout the first half of the year and culminated in a huge party on July 1st. Communities, large and small throughout the length and breadth of the land, joined in by designing their own Centennial celebrations and projects. Many schools libraries, community centres, parks, galleries, etc. were built in an outpouring of nationalist fervour.

Expo '67

As part of Canada's Centennial celebrations, Montreal hosted Expo 67, a colossal world’s fair that received more than 50 million visitors in six months.

Expo '67 was the World's third and North America's first Universal and International Exhibition of the First Category. It lasted for six months and is still, forty decades later, regarded as one of the most successful world’s fairs of all time. The Soviet Union had initially been chosen to host it, but after they pulled out in 1963, Canada was awarded the right to host the fair.

Katimavik at Canadian Pavilion

Expo '67 Stamp

The Canadian Government Pavilion was the largest at Expo, covering eleven and one-quarter acres. It was dominated by an inverted pyramid named "Katimavik", an Eskimo word meaning "a meeting place". The official symbol of Expo was inspired by one of the oldest drawings of man. Eight groups of two of these drawings for a circle graphically portrayed Expo's theme of "Man and his World".

Expo '67 Aerial Shot

Expo '67 Crowds

Much of Expo's one thousand acre site was made from material excavated from Montreal's new Metro subway. It consisted of man-made Île de Notre-Dame, an enlarged Île Sainte-Hélène, an island in the St. Lawrence River linked to Montreal by the Jacques Cartier Bridge, and adjoining MacKay Pier, renamed Cité du Havre.

Buckminster Fuller's US Pavilion, Expo '67

Moshe Safdie's Habitat 67 at Cité du Havre, which he designed at 24 for his Master's Thesis

The venture was an enormous undertaking, and ended up costing $40 million instead of the originally budgeted $10 million. Habitat '67 was the only major exhibit that was not finished on time, but it actually proved a large success when exhibited as a work-in-progress. It was also one of the many architectural achievements that Expo '67 boasted.

---

Top^

Sidelight: Charles de Gaulle's Visit Charles de Gaulle attracts a crowd at Expo 67 on July 25, 1967, the day after his Vive le Québec Libre! speech On July 24, 1967, after making a triumphal tour of Quebec with Premier Daniel Johnson, French President Charles de Gaulle stood on the balcony of Montreal City Hall and at the end of his speech, uttered the words, "Vive le Québec libre," to an ecstatic crowd, which was immediately take to mean support for the FLQ. An outraged Prime Minister Lester Pearson issued an official rebuke saying, "Canadians do not need to be liberated," referring to the liberation of France by Canadian troops in both world wars. De Gaulle cut short his trip and immediately returned to France. See Charles de Gaulle, Vive le Québec Libre

References

1. ↑ roughly, "The Dark Ages"

1. Pearson to Trudeau - Gallery | Stories & Texts | Web Links | Student Activities | Student Projects

---

---

C. New Identities - 1963-1984 → 1. Return of the Liberals: Pearson to Trudeau, 1963-1968 →→ 2. The Trudeau Years 1968-79 → 3. The Constitutional Challenge 1979-84 →→ D. Global Challenges - 1984-Present

---

---

---

Top^