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From Canadian History Portal - HCO

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B. Canada Comes of Age - 1945-1963 → 1. A Time of Transition → 2. Liberal Consensus → 3. The Chief: Canada and Diefenbaker → 4. End of the Golden Age →→ C. New Identities - 1963-1984

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2. Liberal Consensus - Gallery | Stories & Texts | Web Links | Student Activities | Student Projects

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The Liberal Consensus

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I really believe my greatest service is the unwise steps I prevent.

William Lyon Mackenzie King

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King's self-assessment succinctly summarizes his tenure as Canada's longest-serving Prime Minister. The retirement of King marked the end of an era in Canada. In addition to governing the country for much of the previous three decades, and taking the nation through the Second World War, the first steps towards a new Canada had been taken with King at the helm. Although King had been somewhat reluctant to introduce substantial reforms, he provided a steady guiding hand as Canada evolved from the 1920s to the 1940s.

On November 15, 1948, King officially resigned and Louis St. Laurent sworn in as Canada's second Prime Minister from Quebec. Although shy and reserved, St. Laurent was the first "television" Prime Minister, as that communication medium would begin to spread in the 1950s. A perfectly bilingual former corporate lawyer and a member of the Liberal cabinet since 1941, St. Laurent continued to follow the "accommodative" approach characteristic of King. At the same time, St. Laurent - and many of his successors as PM - were willing to create bold legislation, especially policies related to the welfare state. It is often said that Canadians after the Second World War supported a "liberal consensus" - a belief in human rights and freedoms, and government intervention to provide for the needs of its citizens - and St. Laurent managed to fulfill much of this vision. At the same time, his government did receive some criticism for the 'Americanization' of Canada.

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Unprecedented Economic Growth

By 1957, Canada had the second-highest per capita income in the world. This meant that Canadians were virtually the most well-off people in the world. In the two decades after the war, there was unprecedented economic growth: The Gross National Product (GNP) grew almost five-fold. Psychologically, at war’s end Canadians were more than ready to unleash a massive wave of spending. They had endured a decade of depression and more than five years of war. Items and articles that would now be taken for granted - things as normal as chocolate or decent shoes - had proved hard to come by in years gone by.

Canadians had sacrificed and scrimped for a just cause, but they were ready to enjoy life to the fullest. That sentiment, combined with the spending associated with the postwar baby boom, stimulated the Canadian economy to unprecedented heights. Unions continued to struggle for increased rights for workers. Unemployment rates were extremely low. Standards of living rose in most parts of the country. The population increasingly urbanized, and a wide range of modern services and products were available to those living in cities. The 40-hour work week became the norm.

The federal government continued to manage the economy using Keynesian methods. The rate of growth meant - for a while, at least - that money could be spent on both defence and social welfare programs, and a big chunk could simultaneously be taken out of the war-time debt. Defence spending was initially slashed with the end of the war, reaching a Cold War era low in 1947. But it began to climb precipitously, especially after 1951. Foreign investment poured into the country, particularly from the United States. Although some tariffs continued, Canada expanded its trading network with other countries. Economically, the North American nations became progressively intertwined.

Traditional natural resource industries such as farming and fishing underwent substantial reorganization. Alternative resources came jumped to the fore, such as oil and minerals. The need to extract these resources played a part in Canada's role as a world leader in technological innovation. New developments and the economy had a reciprocal relationship, each stimulating the other. Excitement was palpable in the areas where these resources were located: they knew that something such as oil could make the difference between a community thriving or falling off the map. In order to better facilitate the extraction of primary resources, a number of monumental transportation projects were undertaken. In part because of Canada's geographic dispersement, Canadians were at the forefront of communications technology, such as television and telephone networks.

Sidelight: Vern Hunter Strikes Oil at Leduc Leduc #1 On February 13, 1947, on the sleepy Alberta farm of Mike Turta, 15 km west of Leduc and about 50 km south of Edmonton, Imperial Oil's Leduc No.1 well blew in. Before that date, Canada had to rely almost fully on oil imports from other countries. Some crude had been found in Western Canada at Turner Valley, Alberta, [1], but nothing big enough to spark a new oil boom. But Imperial Oil, using new seismic technology and portable, diesel powered rigs, persevered, starting in Saskatchewan. In 1946, they drilled 133 consecutive dry holes in the province. Finally, they gave driller Vern Hunter orders to move his rig, Wilson #2, to the Leduc, Alberta, area, where the seismic crews had found an interesting anomaly. Hunter, now known as 'Dry Hole', spudded in Imperial-Leduc No.1 on November 20, 1946. The well was a wildcat - no drilling had taken place within an 80-km radius. All through the bitterly cold winter, the crew drilled down through the earth and rock, until on February 12, they saw some activity in the bit samples. At first, Hunter and his assistant George Tosh thought they had a gas discovery, but past 1,500 metres, the drilling sped up. Finally, at 1,544 metres the samples started showing free black crude oil! The company decided to celebrate the "bringing in" of the well in a big way. They invited dignitaries, reporters and company people to the well site for an official ceremony at 10 am the following morning, but the swabbing equipment broke down and Tosh had to spend all night fixing it. Many of the 500 invited guests and local farmers left. Finally, at about 4:00 pm, the pipe coughed up some mud and water and started to rumble. As Hunter later wrote, they "could hear it like a train approaching when you put your ear to the pipe". The well came in with a roar, spurting oil into the sump pit. At 4:10 pm, Hunter gave the signal, and Alberta mines minister Norman Tanner turned the valve to start the oil flowing at an initial rate of about 155 cubic metres per day. Then they flared the gas, one of the roughnecks ignited the line, and out puffed "the most beautiful smoke ring you ever saw," followed by a column of flame. People drove in from as far away as Calgary to witness the spectacle at the Leduc No.1 derrick. Alberta oil frenzy hit hard, and the Toronto Stock Exchange was soon listing 40 new Western Canadian oil and gas companies. Leduc Pumpjack Today On May 10, 1947, Leduc No. 2 hit the much bigger Devonian Reef, and Imperial Oil began building the town of Devon for its employees. That December 28, 1947, Canadian Gulf Oil's Pincher Creek No. 1 blew in. By the end of 1947, Imperial Oil and a group of small companies had drilled 147 more wells in the rich Leduc-Woodbend oilfield. Only 11 were dry. The following March 6, 1948, Atlantic Leduc No. 3 oil well became so saturated and weak that the land cratered in, swallowing the drilling rig and causing a fire that burned for 3 days until it could be put out. The well blew wild for 7 months. On August 17, 1948, Imperial Oil opened its refinery at Clover Bar. Leduc No. 1 kept producing until 1974 after giving up some 317,000 barrels of oil and 9 million cubic metres of natural gas. The Leduc field still has natural gas, and Imperial Oil's exploration and production arm, Esso Resources, began producing the field as a gas reservoir on November 1, 1989.

Vern Hunter's Leduc oil strike was like a train in more than just its sound: it also helped drive the Canadian industry and economy forward. Exploration companies competed with one another to tap into the recent discoveries. To name just a few others: natural gas in Alberta, potash in Saskatchewan, copper in Ontario and British Columbia, and zinc and nickel in Manitoba.

Canadian industry quickly retooled from producing military equipment to satisfying pent-up consumer demand. A number of technological advances, in such fields as electronics, synthetic fibers, and plastics, were applied to the manufacture of consumer products, many of them recently introduced. Businesses hired thousands of new workers to produce all the new products. In turn, workers spent the bulk of their pay-cheques on these products, further stimulating the economy. Traditional economic staples began to lose ground to new resources, as enterprises such as fishing and farming underwent significant changes. On the Prairies, the size of farms tended to increase substantially while the number of farms declined. A similar process was evident in other occupations, such as fishing in Atlantic Canada or dairy production in Quebec. These family-run, subsistence sectors - and the lifestyles that went with them - began to give way to a society built around larger businesses and corporations.

In order to maximize Canada's economic potential, a number of mega-projects were undertaken. These projects can be seen as both a cause and a consequence of the economic boom. To supply central Canada with oil and gas obtained on the Prairies, a pipeline extending all the way from Alberta to Montreal was envisioned. This project generated several years of debate, which peaked in 1956 (the Liberals' use of closure during the parliamentary debate may have contributed to their 1957 electoral defeat). The undertaking would be expensive, particularly if the line was built entirely in Canada. An American company was a major contributor, which further fed the controversy. Finally, the oil and gas pipeline was completed in 1956, and around half of Canada's oil and gas output was sold to the United States . Other provinces also developed energy resources: Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Saskatchewan and British Columbia had all constructed power-generating stations, relying on diverse methods such as water and coal.

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North American Integration

Of the $4 billion of foreign investment that came into Canada during 1950, 76% was from the United States. By 1957, when foreign investment totaled $10 billion, 76% of that again came from down south. Canada's roaring economy and wealth of natural resources made it an area of interest for American companies. In addition to financial opportunities, Canadian resources also had strategic and military considerations for the U.S. In particular, Canada was the leading global supplier of uranium. Uranium had taken on a greater importance due to its use in nuclear technology, and Canada had assisted the Americans and British in nuclear research during the Second World War.

Uranium could also be useful for the creation of nuclear energy, a process explored primarily at the laboratory at Chalk River, Ontario (which became a Crown corporation after the war). In conjunction with Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, the Canadian government opened other nuclear reactors and continued to explore the possibilities of nuclear power. Canada sold plutonium (produced from uranium in nuclear reactors) to the British and Americans for use in their nuclear weapons. As will be later discussed, defence concerns - such as continental air defence - also required joint action by the North American neighbors.

Although North American free trade talks in the late 1940s had failed, Canada had signed onto GATT. This resulted in a liberalization of trading, although some tariffs remained, and American capital continued to flow into the country. The St. Lawrence Seaway was a joint U.S.-Canada undertaking, and American financing was integral in getting the Trans-Canada Pipeline project up and running. Other important Canadian companies and enterprises were substantially financed by American money, such as many mining concerns.

In the 1920s, U.S. firms had begun the practice of building and operating "branch plants" in Canada. By building plants within Canada, these American manufacturers could save on import duties and transport costs. These plants provided employment and a full range of goods for Canadian consumers; but there were concerns that American ownership would lead to a loss of economic and political sovereignty for Canada. In fact, Canada has usually had the highest foreign ownership rates of any country in the world, chiefly due to the proximity of the United States and Canada's abundance of natural resources. Another complaint about a branch plant economy was that while resources were extracted in Canada, they were processed and manufactured in the U.S. This could result in lost job opportunities and skill development.

Canada and the United States had begun attempting to create the St. Lawrence seaway and power project in the late 19th century. Agreements were inked in 1932 and 1941 but stopped by the U.S. Congress. During the early 1950s, Canada tried to move ahead with an "all-Canadian" seaway entirely on the north side of the St. Lawrence river, but the American government prevented such a scheme from coming to fruition. By 1954, American participation in the endeavour was secured, and the two countries completed the mammoth project by 1959.

The St. Lawrence project required a massive manipulation of the natural environment, as did many of the other megaprojects and industrial works throughout the twentieth century. In recent decades, Canadian historians have begun to explore the field of environmental history by examining the interactions between nature and human society, with some of the most important contributions examining the impact of dams and hydro works, governmental and popular views of the environment, oil and resource extraction, northern Canada, and national parks in Canada.

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1949 - Newfoundand Joins Confederation At Last Joey Smallwood signs the Agreement which will admit Newfoundland into Confederation, December 11, 1948 (LAC/BAC a128080) On March 31, 1949, at midnight, the colony of Newfoundland officially joined Confederation as Canada's 10th province. Newfoundland was formerly the oldest Dominion in the British Commonwealth. After three years of intense debate, the people of the province had voted to join the Dominion of Canada in a second referendum on April 1, 1948, by a narrow margin of 4%, 52% to 48%. Some Newfoundlanders wanted to return to their old status as an independent Dominion; others wanted to join the United States. Westminster passed the "British North America Act, 1949" 9, aka The Newfoundland Act, for the union of Canada and Newfoundland, and the bill was given Royal Assent on on March 23, 1949. The leader of the pro-Confederation movement, Joey Smallwood was sworn in as the first Premier of Newfoundland on April 1, 1949, and served until 1972. Also on April 1, Prime Minster Louis St. Laurent gives a speech welcoming Newfoundland to the union, and introduces to the Honourable Gordon Bradley of Newfoundland, who was sworn to the Privy Council and is the new Secretary of State of Canada. Read: Louis St. Laurent's Speech Welcoming Newfoundland.

The Baby Boom

Between 1946 and 1966, more than 400,000 babies were born each year, with a peak of 479,000 in 1959. This was an enormous jump from previous decades. It is also higher than birth rates experienced in the early years of 21st century, where Canada's population is approximately twice as large. The "Baby Boom" refers to the approximately 20-year period following the end of the Second World War when the Canadian birth-rate soared. This birth-rate drastically changed the face of Canadian society. A number of factors created the conditions for this boom. Couples had delayed having children due to the war, and the affluent conditions after the war provided good environments in which to raise children. Returning veterans benefited from government programs that encouraged them to go to school, buy houses, get married, and begin raising families. The postwar economic prosperity coupled with rising optimism further intensified the trend. Psychologically and emotionally, many Canadians simply wanted a return to normality, and arguably the best way to achieve this was to buy a house and start a family. The thousands of war brides and young immigrants arriving from overseas added to the trend.

The boomer generation enjoyed the fruits of success planted by their parents. Economically and socially, the generation born in the years following 1945 enjoyed a higher quality of life than previous generations. Numerous memoirs and personal accounts paint a picture of this period as an idyllic time in which to grow up (Put a QUOTE here or at beginning of section). But increased affluence also led to changing values and expectations. The welfare state and baby boom had a reciprocal relationship: a population increase led to calls for improved social conditions, while these improvements created a society more conducive to population growth. The cultural influence of the baby boomers would reach its peak in the 1960s, as the generation attained adulthood.

But in the wake of the war, the numerous families filled the newly-created suburbs as thousands of them chose to locate away from bustling downtown cores. Rows of identical houses full of new appliances and young children (virtually none of whom were from minority groups) filled the suburbs. But, at the time, few lamented the lack of diversity. Suburbia was the symbol of middle-class success. The country was transformed into a youth-centred society as both businesses and governments sought to address this growing demographic. The boom caused the sudden construction of hundreds of new schools and the hiring of thousands of teachers.

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The Welfare State

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There was no choice between guns and butter: instead Canada got some guns and lots of butter.

Robert Bothwell

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This observation by historian Robert Bothwell could be phrased another way: Canada was both a warfare and a welfare state. The decision whether to spend money on defence (guns) or social services (butter) is a common concern for governments around the world. In the early Cold War period, Canada managed to provide both: the country played an active international role while gradually establishing a social security system for its inhabitants. The term "welfare state" refers to a wide range of social programs that governments provide to ensure the welfare and security of a country's citizens. It was not until the 1940s and the Second World War that governments in Canada began to take responsibility for the welfare of their citizens. Memories of the Depression loomed large, and many Canadians bought into the view that the government should play a larger role in assisting its people.

Between 1945 and the early 1970s, government spending on social programs grew exponentially and created a high standard of living for the majority of Canadian citizens. In earlier times, however, when society was less complex and the majority of Canadians worked at farming, fishing, or near the frontiers of settlement, the individual and the family were responsible for their own welfare. The family was expected to look after less fortunate members and elderly parents. If the family was not present or able to provide assistance, then the aged, handicapped, or less fortunate had to turn to the charity of the church or private agencies for a helping hand. It was not unheard of for someone to become destitute, or die, from afflictions or conditions that Canadians in the 21st century would barely worry about.

After the First World War a small pension was provided for veterans whose wounds made them incapable of work. In 1927 the first old age pension was introduced. Qualification for the $20 a month pension required a "means test": an applicant had to be destitute and over the age of 70. However, this was barely enough to live on. It was not until 1951 that a new Old Age Security Act raised the allowance to $40 a month for all Canadians over seventy, regardless of work history. That same year, the Old Age Assistance Plan was instituted. In 1956, the 'means' test for unemployment insurance was replaced by a 'needs' test, making it more accessible.

While many of these social welfare policies had already been introduced in a number of European countries, Canada crafted its own version of the welfare state. Inspiration for many policies came from the provinces or political parties. The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan (and at the federal level) was especially innovative. For example Tommy Douglas's government introduced a provincial hospital insurance program, and the national Hospital and Diagnostic Services Act was passed in 1957. Further health-case measures would be forthcoming in the 1960s.

The Liberals had introduced the National Housing Act in 1944. It created the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC), which was designed to promote construction of new houses, renovate and modernize existing housing, and to create work in postwar Canada. The luxury of home ownership suddenly became possible and by 1951, 80% of Canadian homes had at least one room per person. Of course most of the new homes were built in the cities and large towns. Even by 1941 over 50% of Canadians lived in an urban setting. That percentage grew even more rapidly in post-war Canada. By 1971, 76% of Canadians lived in urban areas. After the war Canadians wanted more out of life. They wanted sturdy homes with running water, indoor plumbing, central heating, electricity and a yard for their growing children to play in. This demand created systematically planned and developed communities on the fringes of the cities – the suburbs.

While some public housing such as Regent Park in Toronto, completed in 1947 with over 1,200 families, were a definite success. Others, such as Villes Jacques Cartier in Montreal and Bridgeview in British Columbia, were disasters. They were little more than shantytowns on the urban fringe. Many lacked water or sewage, and the areas were without garbage collection, or street-lighting. The growth of social program certainly contributed to an expanded and prosperous Canadian middle class. However, there were still many Canadians who did not benefit. In fact, about a quarter of Canadians still lived in poverty or near-poverty conditions. Those from minority ethnic or language groups were often marginalized. If a person was of United Kingdom or European origins, and could speak English, Canada was a land of endless opportunities after 1945. For the rest, the affluence of the post-war world benefited them to a much lesser extent.

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A Middle Power

Canada's defence expenditures went from $787 million in 1947 to $1.95 billion in 1952. Until 1969, defence spending would remain the single largest item in the Canadian budget. Likewise, the number of troops in the Canadian armed forces soared from 35,000 in 1947 to 104,000 in 1953. Despite these military increases, the St. Laurent government continued to run budget surpluses. This was an age when could Canada spend on both guns and butter and not go into the hole financially. St. Laurent had served as the Secretary of State for External Affairs from 1946-1948. This experience during a transitional period for Canadian foreign policy would be important. Collectively, St. Laurent and Lester Pearson (newly appointed Secretary of State for External Affairs), formed a dynamic foreign affairs team. They were supported by an equally adept range of Canadian diplomats and civil servants.

By the midpoint of the century, Canada had more or less adjusted to the realities of the Cold War. The two opposing power blocs had been solidified, and the West had established the key alliances which would continue throughout the Cold War. The United States served as the leader and most indispensable member of the western bloc. Canadian security relied heavily on the nuclear deterrence provided by the U.S. and NATO. However, the United States could be single-minded when it came to decision-making. The Canadian method for dealing with its powerful North American neighbor was often 'quiet diplomacy': behind-the-scenes negotiations and diplomacy to bring about peaceful settlements. Through the various multilateral alliances, Canadian leaders and diplomats tried to ensure that the Canadian viewpoint was always understood.

Indeed, Canadian and American economic and defence integration was at its peak during the early Cold War. However, the unique relationship that the two North American countries enjoyed was also undermined to an extent by growing Canadian fears of a loss of sovereignty to the United States not only in economic terms, but also due to problems concerning the St. Lawrence seaway and the Korean War.

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The Korean War

The early phases of the Korean War (1950-1953) threatened to turn into the all-out nuclear conflict the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries both feared. The Cold War appeared to be on the brink of turning hot. But the Korean War foreshadowed the form that the Cold War would take, with the superpowers only indirectly confronting each other. When North Korea, recently turned communist, invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950, they reached as far as the South Korean capital of Seoul.

On July 5, 1950, only 11 days after the outbreak of hostilities, three Canadian destroyers, Cayuga, Athabaskan and Sioux sailed out of Esquimalt under the command of Captain J. V. Brock. On July 30, they reached Japan, ready to join in the battle for the Pusan bridgehead in Korea. Before the end of the war in 1953, five other Canadian ships would also serve with the Canadian Destroyer Division, Far East, in the Korean campaign – HMC Ships Nootka, Iroquois, Huron, Haida and Crusader. HMCS Haida had two tours of duty in Korea between 1952 and 1954. She fought alongside the UN forces blockading supply lines, protecting aircraft carriers and destroying communist supply trains, (also called "train busting".

In September, 1950, US General Douglas MacArthur led a UN sea landing at Seoul's port of Inchon and forced the North Koreans to retreat. Seoul was re-captured, and UN Forces then crossed the 38th Parallel, moving north toward the Chinese border. However, with aid from the Soviet Union and China (which had turned communist in 1949), the North Korean forces counter-attacked, with a massive offensive that drove the UN and South Korean Armies back across the 38th Parallel to southern positions along the Imjin River.

A sixteen-member United Nations force was assembled to fight the North Koreans (the Soviet Union was boycotting the UN Security Council at the time and thus could not veto the force). Canada joined this international police force through the United Nations and formed part of a British Commonwealth Division.

Initially, the Liberal government was reluctant to become heavily involved: they sent only an air-transport squadron and three destroyers. After American pressure to furnish more assistance, the Canadian forces were increased. By the end of the conflict, the Canadian contribution was much more noticeable and in keeping with its status as a middle power. Canada sent a total of almost 22,000 troops to Korea over the duration of the war, with 1,543 casualties (312 killed). These troops were dispatched in rotation, so there was never more than 8,000 in Asia at any given time.

By mid-February 1951, units from Canada, Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand and India had joined to form one Commonwealth Force, as part of a north-eastern advance toward the 38th Parallel. By the end of March, Canadian troops were in the Kapyong Valley. On April 24 and 25, the 2nd Battalion of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry fought day and night to repel repeated attacks by the Chinese 118th Division. This action stopped the Chinese army advance on Seoul, the Korean capital. Impressed by such gallantry and tenacity, the U.S. president awarded the battalion the American Distinguished Unit Citation, which it has worn ever since.

By mid-April, 1951, UN Forces were again north of the 38th Parallel, but western politicians decided against invading China. In late April, with new troops and equipment, Chinese and North Korean forces again struck in the western and west-central sectors, forcing heavily outnumbered US Marines to retreat. Canadian and other Commonwealth soldiers entered the battle in the Kapyong Valley and helped the American withdrawal. For this gallant action the Canadians were awarded a US Presidential Citation.

Early in July 1951, cease-fire negotiations began, but there was two more years of fighting until the signing of the Armistice at Panmunjom on July 27, 1953. The Korean War basically ended in a stalemate. The 1953 armistice confirmed the status of North and South Korea in much the same position as they had been when the conflict broke out - divided at the 38th parallel, with a communist North and non-communist South. But communism had been 'contained'. Furthermore, the Korean War was important to Canada because it solidified the country's place within the western alliance. It also provided experience dealing with American leadership and decision-making.

General MacArthur had favoured widening the war to include China, and advocated the use of nuclear weapons. Although U.S. President Harry Truman was against such a strategy, the Canadians feared that the United States might eventually go down this path. Pearson and others strenously argued for compromise, an avoidance of excessive force, and for decisions to be channeled through the United Nations. Canadian leaders realized that dealing with the United States on strategic matters would be a tricky issue. Nevertheless, domestic public opinion supported the Canadian involvement in the Korean War. Canadians felt that communism had been deterred, and constant vigilance could keep it that way.

In addition, the first UN intervention in history had effectively stopped the aggression, and the UN emerged from the crisis with enhanced prestige.

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Return to Europe

At the same time as Canada was engaged in Korea, they were making military plans for western Europe. Canadian planners believed Europe would be the key front in the Cold War. They also believed that Soviet imperialism and aggression must be stopped. After the Second World War, Germany had been divided into two parts: the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). West Germany was a western-orientated capitalist state, while East Germany was communist. Because of Germany's strategic position - especially the divided city of Berlin - it became the focal point of the Cold War.

Early in the 1950s, Canada decided to buy and produce armaments on a much larger scale. The Liberals also committed to returning Canadian troops to Europe to bolster the western alliance. In 1951, a Canadian army brigade and an air division were sent to join other NATO members in West Germany. The original contribution was soon surpassed, and Canadian forces became an integral part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's European defences.

The Soviets had tested their own nuclear weapon in 1949. They had the ability to reach North America with these weapons via long-range bombers by the mid-1950s. To detect such a threat, Canada and the United States cooperated on the production of a series of radar defence lines in Canada. The Pinetree Line was completed in 1954 and consisted of 30 radar stations running roughly parallel to the Canadian-American border. Canada paid 1/3 of the cost. In 1957, Canada alone paid for another 98 stations, which formed the Mid-Canada Line. That same year, work on the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line was completed. It stretched along the Arctic from Alaska to to Baffin Island. The U.S. government financed this undertaking, although Canada retained ownership and some command of the sites on Canadian soil.

In 1953, the Korean War ended and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin died. As a result, chilly east-west relations thawed somewhat. This was evidenced by Pearson's visit to the Soviet Union in 1955, one of the first western officials to do so during the early Cold War. The trip resulted in a Canadian-Soviet trade agreement the following year. Canada also strengthened relations with other countries, particularly through the Commonwealth. The newly independent republic of India is one such example. Aid to underdeveloped countries, such as the Colombo Plan, began to attract more attention. Although a relaxation of tensions with the Russians seemed possible, Cold War strains were still visible all over the world.

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Suez and Nobel

According to Lester Pearson, Canada "may have prevented a brush fire from becoming an all-consuming blaze." The Minister of External Affairs was referring to the Suez Crisis of 1956. The crisis revolved around the Suez Canal in Egypt. The canal linked the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, and was a vital shipping route. British troops had left the canal zone in 1954, but the Suez Canal was still owned by a joint British-French company. Egypt then attempted to nationalize the canal in 1956 - Britain, France, and Israel invaded, despite American opposition.

The Soviet Union was supportive of the Egyptian position, but not directly involved. Due to the the superpower veto in the Security Council, the United Nations had become increasingly unable to deal with armed encounters. If the Russians or Americans, for example, disagreed on a policy - which they generally did - they could use their veto and prevent the UN from taking action. Likewise, the issue threatened to drive a wedge in the western alliances and even lead to a full-fledged war. Although the western countries often disagreed, they tended to keep it behind closed doors. If it was publicly revealed that countries were at odds, such as the U.K. and U.S., it could be extremely damaging to the western alliance. The Soviets would likely attempt to exploit any divisions: any chink in the NATO armour might mean they were open for an attack.

At first, Canada hesitated to declare an official position on the Suez Crisis. To defuse the situation, Lester Pearson played the lead role in proposing a plan to separate the Suez Crisis combatants. The Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs outlined a plan for the creation of a new measure, the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) to ensure and supervise an end to the hostilities. This force was directed by a Canadian, General E.L.M. Burns, and included approximately 800 Canadian troops (although there was initial controversy over the inclusion of Canadian troops, as their uniforms too closely resembled those of the British according to the Egyptians). The UNEF force replaced the British and French forces in Egypt by the end of the year, and stayed in the country to keep enforce the cease-fire for another decade.

The cessation of hostilities was mainly due to the unwillingness of Britain and France to jeopardize the western alliance by engaging in a military operation not supported by the U.S. Their foray into Egypt was also proving economically damaging. The UNEF provided a convenient and dignified way of withdrawing without losing too much face. The stability of the western alliance had been foremost in Pearson's mind too when he forwarded the emergency force idea. Thus pragmatic considerations were the key factor in ending the conflict, although this likely would not have been possible without the Canadian involvement and UNEF proposal.

At the time, Canadian public opinion was split over the country's actions. Many felt that Canada should have been more supportive of the British position. Nonetheless, in 1957 Pearson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. Furthermore, Pearson's efforts eventually came to be recognized as a uniquely Canadian contribution to international affairs. The Suez Crisis is now seen as a seminal moment in the development of Canadian peace-keeping. While Canadian peace-keeping missions proliferated after 1956 and made numerous contributions, the western security alliance provided by NATO remained the cornerstone of Canadian foreign policy, at least until the end of the 1960s.

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• See: Lester Pearson's Acceptance Speech, December 10, 1957
• See: Lester Pearson, The Nobel Peace Prize Lecture, December 11, 1957

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Post-War Immigration

We can only imagine the emotions of those who stepped onto Canadian soil for the first time after living through the ravages of the Second World War. Indeed, the overwhelming majority of the immigrants who came to Canada after the end of the war were from Europe (only about 4% of immigrants in the initial post-war period came from African and Asian countries). Almost one and a half million immigrants, refugees, displaced persons, war brides, individuals, and families left Europe for the safe haven of Canada. Some were escaping from Soviet crackdowns in countries such as East Germany and Hungary, while many more were simply seeking a better life as they saw little future in the economic dislocation of a war-ravaged Europe. Others had even managed to survive the Nazi concentration camps.

Initially, over half of the immigrants originated from the British Isles and Western Europe. However, a significant change in the face of the immigration picture began to appear a few years later as sizable numbers of immigrants came from southern and Eastern Europe. A large contingent of Italians, in particular, crossed the Atlantic in the post-war years. The face of immigration would change further, beginning in the later 1950s, as immigrants from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean began arriving in Canada.

One specific location played a critical role in the early years of post-war immigration. Pier 21 in Halifax, Nova Scotia was the Canadian equivalent to the earlier role played by Ellis Island in American history. Pier 21 was the first point of entry for thousands of refugees, displaced persons, and immigrants landing in Canada by ship. It was arguably the single busiest building in all of Canada. For example, in 1951, close to 100,000 new Canadians passed through its doors.

Some of those new Canadians remained in Halifax or traveled a little to settle in the Maritimes. However, for the great majority of the new arrivals, Pier 21 and the immediate environs were only a brief resting point. Most immediately boarded trains to finally take up residence in major cities, often with relatives or friends. Still others journeyed further to work in the mines of northern Quebec or Ontario and others went further still, to ultimately become farmers on the Canadian Prairie.

They had an immense impact on Canada. They brought their skills and talents and wove them into the economy. The new citizens contributed to the economy as workers and as consumers. They also brought with them their unique values and beliefs and, in the process, greatly added to the diversity of the cultural landscape. In short, they laid the basis for a truly multicultural Canada. They all faced, individually and collectively, problems of acceptance and integration but each immigrant, in his or her own way, ultimately made a home in Canada. They had to learn the customs, find accommodations, seek employment, send their children to different schools, and adapt to different customs and practices.

Two years following the ending of war, the Canadian government passed the Canadian Citizenship Act. British subjects now automatically became Canadian citizens. Also under the terms of the recently passed law, Canadians could now sponsor relatives from their countries of origin to emigrate to Canada, something that they were formerly prohibited from doing.

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Canadian Culture

By the early 1950s, Canadians once again had the time and resources to turn to cultural pursuits.

The Royal Commission on National Development in the Arts, Letters and Sciences (commonly known as the Massey Commission after its chair, Vincent Massey), was appointed by the federal government in 1949 to recommended ways to encourage Canadian culture. In its 1951 Report of the Royal Commission on National Development in the Arts, Letters and Sciences, The Massey Commission warned of growing American influence on Canadian culture, and recommended:

• the revamping of the CBC, the creation of Radio-Canada International and federal involvement in national television;
• the creation of the National Library
• the enlargement of  the mandate of the National Film Board.
• establishment of a Canada Council for the Arts, Sciences and Humanities to fund national cultures
• introduction of federal bursaries for university students and federal funding for Higher Education.

In 1957, the government founded the Canada Council/Conseil des arts to support Canadian artists and fund Canadian cultural productions.

In spite of US cultural products entering Canada, the 1950s witnessed a revolution in the Canadian entertainment industry, and an outpouring of Canadian contributions to the arts.

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The National Film Board

Communications technology was at the forefront of changing culture. Parliament created the National Film Board (NFB) in 1939 to document the war experience (and essentially serve as a propaganda tool). In 1950, the NFB was removed from governmental control, and two years later one of its animated shorts, Neighbors, received an Oscar award. The NFB received a number of awards for its pioneering work in animation, as well as convention film-making and photography.

The CBC

In 1952, the Canadian Broadcasting Company (CBC) - with a focus on Canadian-produced programming - provided the first Canadian television broadcasts.

Canadian Family With First TV Set

Ernie Coombs as Mr. Dressup (CBC)

Sports Broadcasting

The first English-language hockey telecast took place in November. It was announced by the legendary Foster Hewitt, famous for his legendary call: "He shoots ... he scores!" A few days after the first hockey broadcast, Maurice 'Rocket' Richard set the record for goals in an NHL career.

Hockey remained a passion for many Canadians, as did other sports. The Grey Cup, awarded to the champion of the Canadian Football League, continued its tradition as Canada's oldest professional sports trophy (and one of the oldest in North America).

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Canadian Identity

While difficult to precisely measure, the Canadian identity had also changed. The war had provided a confidence boost, and Canada was now a unified, mature country. In 1952, King George VII died in his sleep, and his daughter became Queen Elizabeth II. Later in the month, Vincent Massey was sworn in as the first Canadian-born Governor-General. Although Canada was independent, it retained its symbolic British connections, and many Canadians still had warm feelings toward the Commonwealth.

Economic and cultural relations between the former mother country and colony continued to be significant, but despite warmer feelings toward the U.K. than the U.S., Canadian-American economic and cultural trade was much more substantial. Because of this fact, many started to become concerned that Canada would soon be indistinguishable from the United States. For better for for worse, in the second half of the 20th century, Canada would become further intertwined culturally, economically, and strategically more closely with its southern neighbour.

Cultural Achievers

A number of notable cultural achievements were made in Canada during St. Laurent's tenure. However, it is also important to remember that many Canadians identified with their local circumstances as much, or more, than they identified with a larger Canadian identity. This is historically most obvious in Quebec, but other regions and groups were equally proud of their unique heritage. As the century wore on, these different identities would begin to call for recognition, but in the 1950s cohesion among Canadians was still strong. In 1950, the accomplished pianist Glenn Gould gave his first public performance. A group of Toronto-based abstract painters, the Painters Eleven, was founded in 1952. Literary icons Mordecai Richler and Leonard Cohen published some of their first efforts.

While worries that Canada would become dominated by American culture were certainly justified, many Canadians managed to penetrate the U.S. market. A number of Canadians had #1 hits on the American Billboard charts. Raymond Burr, who would go on star in the Perry Mason and Ironside series, made his TV acting debut.

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Canadian Women

In the first half of the 1950s, Nellie McLung and Agnes McPhail both passed away. These two had been pioneers in women's rights. Although women had undoubtedly improved their position in Canadian society since the Mclung and McPhail's early days of activism, there was still much room for improvement. Women continued to challenged stereotypes and double-standards. Women had gained better access to employment during the war, but not all of these opportunities continued after 1945. Women continued to be paid less than men for equivalent jobs. Moreover, they were generally expected to still perform all the household work even if they simultaneously held down a job.

At the same time that the status of women was in flux, other social values showed signs of change. As education became necessary for finding employment, a higher proportion of young people sought high school diplomas. As the boomer generated came of age, the number seeking a university degree also jumped noticeably. Based on church attendance, religion appeared to remain a dominant force in Canadian society. However, its importance appears to have been more and more superficial, and religion may have been more linked to socialization than beliefs.

Sidelight: Canadians and Television Wayne and Schuster Spoofing Cyrano de Bergerac 1957 Rogers Majestic Black and White TV, Made in Toronto Of the many new innovations, the one that had the greatest impact on post-war culture was television. It altered consumer spending patterns, tastes, and lifestyles. It greatly enhanced the on-going consumer revolution. Since 80% of the Canadian population lived within a couple of hundred kilometers of the Canadian-US border, television continued the process of the Americanization of Canada’s culture. Television changed what people did. People adjusted their schedules to accommodate popular programs such as 'The Ed Sullivan Show', 'Howdy Doody', and 'The Wonderful World of Disney'. Television created new stars, such as the Canadian comedy duo of (Johnny) Wayne and (Frank) Schuster. In 1948 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) received a license to create and operate a distinctly Canadian television service. Its mandate was to inform Canadians about themselves and in the process promote Canadian unity. Four years later, television stations were opened in Toronto and Montreal. Local stations in Vancouver, Ottawa, Winnipeg, and Halifax shortly followed that. Hockey Night in Canada Broadcasters Dave Hodge and Howie Meeker (CBC) CBC-Radio-Canada Logo 1940-58 CBC, like most television of the time, broadcast the vast majority of shows live. So all the mistakes and foibles went out on the airwaves. TV news began to challenge newspapers and radio as people’s source of information. Lifestyles adapted to accommodate the new medium, most notably the ubiquitous TV dinner. By far, the most popular Canadian television show was – and would long remain – 'Hockey Night in Canada'. CBC attempted to balance its offerings, both in terms of Canadian and American productions and in popular and cultural offerings. Televised Shakespearian plays and intellectual panel shows competed for time with American successes such as 'Father Knows Best' and 'I Love Lucy'. One of the early debates to emerge – and to continue for decades – was the exodus of Canadian stars south of the border, a process that mirrored the much discussed ‘brain drain’ in the academic community.

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2. Liberal Consensus - Gallery | Stories & Texts | Web Links | Student Activities | Student Projects

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B. Canada Comes of Age - 1945-1963 → 1. A Time of Transition → 2. Liberal Consensus → 3. The Chief: Canada and Diefenbaker → 4. End of the Golden Age →→ C. New Identities - 1963-1984

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