| INDEX →→ I. The Founders → II. The Settlers → III. The New Nation → IV. Appendix →→ TERMS OF USE © Northern Blue Publishing. A licence is required for institutional or commercial use of any material in these pages. Please read the Terms of Use. |
3. The Chief: Canada and the Diefenbaker Government, 1957-63
From Canadian History Portal - HCO
| B. Canada Comes of Age - 1945-1963 → 1. A Time of Transition → 2. Liberal Consensus → 3. The Chief: Canada and Diefenbaker → 4. End of the Golden Age →→ C. New Identities - 1963-1984 |
| 3. Canada and Diefenbaker - Gallery | Stories & Texts | Web Links | Student Activities | Student Projects |
Contents |
Prairie Populist
- We shall be Canadians first, foremost, and always, and our policies will be decided in Canada and not dictated by any other country. - John G. Diefenbaker
John Diefenbaker served as the 13th Prime Minister of Canada from 1957 until 1963. After twenty-two years of the Liberals, Canadians were ready for a change. Voters were further motivated by the Liberals' use of closure in the Pipeline Debate and performance during the Suez Crisis, both in 1956.
The man who personified that change was John G. Diefenbaker. He narrowly led the Progressive Conservatives to a minority government in 1957, and the following year won the largest electoral majority in Canadian history up to that point. The Tories (nickname for Conservatives) would return to a minority government in 1962 before losing the 1963 election. The years 1957-63 have been labeled the "Diefenbaker Interlude", for the Liberals would return to power again in 1963 and govern (aside of a brief interruption in 1979) until 1984.
Diefenbaker was a Saskatchewan-raised lawyer who had been involved in politics since the 1920s. He was originally born to an Ontario farming family who moved to the area around Prince Albert in Saskatchewan while John was still at a very young age. Diefenbaker trained as a criminal lawyer and wound up defending a number of defendants charged with first-degree murder. That experience, coupled with a strong agrarian background, made him a staunch defender of individual rights.
As a young adult, Diefenbaker began running for political office but was generally unsuccessful for many years. The "Chief" - as Diefenbaker was known - had become a Member of Parliament in 1940 and leader of the Progressive Conservative Party in 1956 (the Conservative Party was renamed the Progressive Conservatives in 1942). Diefenbaker enjoyed portraying himself as a man of the people, and was a powerful and moving speaker. Thus he was labeled the 'prairie populist.' He was a very dominating leader within his own government, demanding obedience from his caucus.
But Diefenbaker could also be indecisive. This characteristic would become pronounced in his last years as Prime Minister as Diefenbaker sometimes avoided making hard decisions that he though might be unpopular. Granted, the PCs (Progressive Conservatives) did have to deal with a particularly divided Canadian public opinion. The 'liberal consensus' was falling apart: Canadians were no longer unanimous in their political goals. Canadians were somewhat disenchanted and were not as optimistic as they had been in the decade that had just passed.
During the 1957 election campaign, Diefenbaker portrayed the Liberals as arrogant and unresponsive to the people – and too compliant towards the United States. His party lost no time in making their mark with Canadian citizens. In a little over a year in power, the Progressive Conservatives raised pensions from $40/month to $55/month, cut taxes, and provided subsidies to Prairie farmers. The measures resonated with the voters. In the following year’s election, on March 31, 1958, 'the Dief sweep' took the country by storm as the Progressives Conservatives won 208 out of 265 seats, Canada's largest ever majority by percentage of seats. They had never done that well, even winning a majority of the seats in the province of Quebec, for the first time ever. (They in fact won 61% of the votes cast in Quebec). Diefenbaker's promises of a brighter future for all Canadians and an even better economy, uttered with passion and conviction from podiums across the land, were taken to heart.
One Canada
Diefenbaker was known as a strong supporter of human rights. Throughout his time as Prime Minister he made contributions to minority rights. Diefenbaker. He contended that race and sex should not be factors in how a person was treated or perceived. Diefenbaker promoted the idea that a citizen be an 'unhyphenated Canadian' - each should be considered Canadian, not German-Canadian or Ukrainian-Canadian. This was extended to immigration, as racial criteria was eliminated from the Immigration Act in 1962. Immigrants of European descent still made up the largest number of immigrants to Canada. After the Hungarian uprising in 1956 and the 'Prague Spring' in Czechoslovakia in 1957, a large contingent of people from these countries came to Canada. But people from different ethnic backgrounds also sought a better life in Canada, creating a more multicultural society.
Although more rhetorical than real, Diefenbaker's Northern Vision promised an economic boom for Canadians living in the upper half of Canada. Despite considerable money being invested in the North, only two new mines, one gold and one tungsten, were opened during his tenure. Money was also poured into northern infrastructure. Roads, harbours and airports were built to improve transportation and access. However, it was such a massive undertaking, that the actual results did little to improve the life of those who inhabited the country’s northern reaches. In 1961, the Diefenbaker government brought in the Agricultural Rehabilitation and Development Act (ARDA) aimed at improving the living and economic standards of rural dwellers by providing assistance for the use of marginal land, creating employment, developing water resources, and setting up projects for other industries.
In 1960, Prime Minister John Diefenbaker's government decided to permit all Status Indians to vote in federal elections. Since 1950, Status Indians had been allowed vote on the condition that they gave up their treaty rights and Indian status, defined in the Indian Act as "enfranchisement," or if they had fought in the First or Second World Wars. The Inuit and Métis were already able to vote at the time. The "Act to Amend the Canada Elections Act," which removed the discriminatory parts of Section 14, was made into law on March 31, 1960. The 1968 election would make Leonard Marchand the first Status Indian to serve as a Member of Parliament. Status Indians would not be legally allowed to vote all provincial elections until Quebec enfranchised them in 1969.
In 1957 the first equalization payments were made. These were transfers from the federal governments to the poorer provinces so that they could have living standards equivalent to the richer provinces. Transfers of these type stretched back to Confederation, but were formalized under the Progressive Conservatives. The equalization formula is complex and has changed since 1957, but essentially a standard is created based on the performance of the economically strong provinces (the 'have' provinces) and money is given to the provinces with weaker economies (the 'have-nots'). Equalization was instituted in a period of cooperative federalism - the provincial and and federal governments come to mutual agreements on their areas of jurisdiction and taxation/spending power.
Origins of Universal Health Care
Provincial governments were beginning to put more money into hospitals and, in 1957, a hospital insurance program with costs shared by the provinces and federal governments was implemented. Unfortunately, doctor services were not covered and there were great differences in facilities and access to health care across the country, with the Atlantic Provinces and rural areas lagging behind. In 1961 Tommy Douglas, the dynamic leader of the CCF government of Saskatchewan, introduced a universal medical insurance program despite stiff resistance from many doctors who went on strike. However, Saskatchewan's medical insurance scheme was successful and became the model for the rest of the country. In 1961 Diefenbaker initiated a Royal Commission on Health Services. This Commission would, after Diefenbaker had left office, recommend universal and comprehensive medical care. The Liberals would implement these recommendations later in the 1960s.
A Canadian Bill of Rights
To underscore his strong belief in human rights and the dignity of the individual, in 1960 Diefenbaker's government brought in The Canadian Bill of Rights.
The bill guaranteed fundamental rights such as freedom of religion, speech, assembly, association, ensured legal rights such as the right to a fair trial, and recognized every individual’s right to life, liberty, security, and enjoyment of property. It was a landmark document that would pave the way for the 1982 Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
However, the Bill of Rights only was of limited use. To make it part of the Canadian Constitution would have been difficult because it would require both provincial and federal consent (and could change the federal-provincial balance of power in many areas) and constitutional change still required the consent of the British government, according to the BNA Act. Thus, the Bill of Rights was simply an Act of the House of Commons with limited applicability. However, it was a powerful statement that paved the way for the 1982 Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Immigration Policy Reform
|
By the 1960s, it became clear that Western Europe, back on its feet after postwar rebuilding, would no longer produce the steady stream of immigrants required to support Canada's expanding economy. Immigration regulations were changed to open the door to skilled people, as well as domestic servants, both in short supply, from regions other than Europe and the United States. On January 19, 1962, Diefenbaker cabinet minister Ellen Fairclough tabled new regulations in the House that virtually eliminated racial discrimination as a major feature of Canada's immigration policy. Henceforth any unsponsored immigrants who had the requisite education, skill, or other qualifications were to be considered suitable for admission, irrespective of colour, race, or national origin, provided (1) they had a specific job waiting for them in Canada or were able to support themselves until they found employment, (2) they were not criminals or terrorists, and (3) they did not suffer from a disease that endangered public health. Only one vestige of true discrimination remained and that was the provision that allowed European immigrants and immigrants from the Americas to sponsor a wider range of relatives. This clause would be removed five years later, however, in the immigration regulations of 1967. The new regulations tabled by Fairclough were foreshadowed by Diefenbaker's Canadian Bill of Rights, that had rejected discrimination by reason of race, colour, national origin, religion, or sex, so the federal government could no longer justify selecting immigrants on the basis of race or national origin. The Pearson government also revised the Immigration Act in 1967 to end the sponsorship bias that once kept Canada's gates largely closed to non-whites. The new points system for potential immigration candidates replaced the old 'preferred country' method. People from the Caribbean and Asia, in particular, took advantage of Canada's changing immigration policies. |
 Immigration to Canada by Region of Origin, 1946-1967
|
Recession and National Projects
Although a major recession hit in 1958 and continued into the early 1960s, the overall period from 1950 to 1970 was still one of unprecedented economic growth in Canada. The period under Diefenbaker was certainly prosperous compared to the Depression and the war years. But, relative to the previous decade, things were not as bright. While the recession which began in 1958 was somewhat unavoidable, due to the cyclical nature of the Canadian economy and its increasing connection to American and world markets, it still hit Canadians hard. They were used to having new products in their homes and spending cash in their pockets. They now had to tighten their belts to an extent.
Since the early 20th century, Ontario has dominated the Canadian economy, followed by Quebec and British Columbia. Changes to the post-war economy further exacerbated the trend of regional disparity, as the Atlantic Canada and Prairie provinces (aside of Alberta) saw their share decline. The link between economic and political power has led to changing regional and provincial identities. To offset the disparity in provincial incomes, in 1957 the federal government introduced equalization payments. Using a formula (which has changed over time) to determine the "have" and "have-not" provinces. Money is then given to the "have-not" provinces to allow them to provide services and programs roughly equal to what the "have" provinces offer to their residents.
However, American involvement in the Canadian economy increased Canadian economic nationalism: the desire to protect Canada's economy and domestic markets from foreign intervention. On the hand, American investment undoubtedly benefited the Canadian economy and created many jobs; on the other hand, there were fears that Canada was losing its sovereignty and freedom to make decisions. Some people argued that the U.S. was close to virtually 'owning' Canada because of the economic interdependence, and that Canada would become a Cold War pawn of the United States. These feelings would become more pronounced in the 1960s and 1970s.
The Baby Boom Grows Up
In a similar way as the concept of a distinct childhood emerged at the turn of the century, the teenager arrived as unique individual in the 1950s. Such a period of development had never before really existed, but blossomed forth loudly and dramatically in the postwar period. Now, with the emerging prosperity, Canadians did not have to immediately find employment upon completion of high school. They now had the opportunity to go to university. They were not children any longer, but they were not quite adults. The teenager had emerged. As the vast majority lived at home, they had both leisure time and money to spend.
Students emerged as rebels against some of the conformist demands of the time. They developed their own fashion, slang, music, and values. Whereas earlier generations wanted to emulate their elders, this postwar generation wanted nothing to with their parents. They adopted the great American icon, James Dean (“Rebel Without a Cause”). The vast differences became so great that a new term – the generation gap – was created.
The clarion cry of teenagers was the start of rock and roll. A blending of black music from the American south with northern rhythm and blues, the new genre, first called rock and roll by Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed, burst onto the scene. A pulsating beat, fueled by only a few chords and backed by fast guitar and piano made for a lively new, highly ‘dance-able’ music.
Suburbia changed the cultural and social landscape for tens of thousands of Canadians. Desiring to live away from their places of employment, they flocked to the outskirts of cities, which became known as suburbs. The advent of millions of new cars allowed them the luxury of moving away. While they enjoyed their new lifestyles, critics pointed out shortcomings. Commuting time, pollution, and conformity were all seen as significant weaknesses of the new suburban lifestyle. Don Mills in Toronto was the first planned suburb, but was quickly followed by Fraserview in Vancouver, Wildwood in Winnipeg, and Bedford Basin in Halifax. The quarter of a million Canadians who had moved to the new suburbs by the middle of the fifties enjoyed the green, open spaces that surrounded their bungalows. Shopping malls were built to provide closer conveniences and began to dot the landscape.
Canadian Content
Of the many new innovations, arguably the one that had the greatest impact on postwar culture was television. It altered consumer spending patterns, tastes, and lifestyles in general. It greatly enhanced the on-going consumer revolution. Since 80% of the Canadian population lived within a couple of hundred kilometers of the 49th parallel, television continued the process of the Americanization of Canada’s culture. Television changed what people did. People adjusted their schedules to accommodate popular programs such as The Ed Sullivan Show, Howdy Doody, and The Wonderful World of Disney. Television created new stars, such as the Canadian comedy duo of (Johnny) Frank and Frank (Shuster).
In 1948 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) received a license to create and operate a distinctly Canadian television service. Its mandate was to inform Canadians about themselves and in the process promote Canadian unity. Four years later, television stations were opened in Toronto and Montreal. Local stations in Vancouver, Ottawa, Winnipeg, and Halifax shortly followed that. In 1959, it was decided that Canadian television channels must have 45% Canadian content (or cancon for short), which meant that Canadians must have been involved in created or producing a show. Ideally, a program would also be of a Canadian character or content. In 1962, cancon was upped to 55%.
CBC, like most television of the time, broadcast the vast majority of shows live. So all the mistakes and foibles went out on the airwaves. TV news began to challenge newspapers and radio as people’s source of information. Lifestyles adapted to accommodate the new medium, most notably the ubiquitous T.V. dinner. The runaway most popular Canadian television show was – and would long remain – Hockey Night in Canada that attracted millions of fans. CBC attempted to balance its offerings, both in terms of Canadian-made productions along with American ones as well as popular and cultural offerings. Televised Shakespearian plays and intellectual panel shows competed for time with American successes such as 'Father Knows Best' and 'I Love Lucy.' A debate that emerged – and which has persisted – was the exodus of Canadian to the United States, a process that mirrored the much discussed ‘brain drain’ in the academic community.
Canadian Pop Music
 |
 |
 |
 |
Canadian Literature
Science, Technology and Innovation
Canadian scientists were instrumental in removing the threat of polio. This disease could strike the spine or lungs, and often left sufferers paralyzed. Canada experienced polio epidemics in the wake of the Second World War. Throughout the 1950s scientists developed the "Toronto method", as the work primarily took place at the University of Toronto, which could vaccinate people against the threat of the disease. By 1962, polio had been virtually eradicated in Canada.
Top^
| 3. Canada and Diefenbaker - Gallery | Stories & Texts | Web Links | Student Activities | Student Projects |
| B. Canada Comes of Age - 1945-1963 → 1. A Time of Transition → 2. Liberal Consensus → 3. The Chief: Canada and Diefenbaker → 4. End of the Golden Age →→ C. New Identities - 1963-1984 |
del.icio.us
digg
facebook
googlebookmark
reddit
stumbleupon
yahoo
