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4. First Nations: Health and Demographics
From Canadian History Portal - HCO
| E. Aboriginal People and First Nations Today → 1. Land Claims → 2. First Nations: Self Government → 3. Resource Rights → 4. First Nations: Health and Demographics → 5. Education → 6. First Nations and the Justice System |
Contents |
Introduction
Aboriginal health issues are an important concern. Many of the health problems that Aboriginal peoples deal with are related to the living conditions on some (not all) reserves, and the generally lower income levels of Aboriginals compared to other Canadians. The result of these and other factors is that Aboriginal peoples generally suffer from more health related problems than non-Aboriginal people.
There is a danger when reading about the health problems of Aboriginal people to see this as only an ‘Indian problem.’ Such an attitude overlooks that major factors in most health issues are income, poverty and education levels. Health problems in any isolated communities tend to be higher compared to more affluent and educated parts of Canada Higher rates of health problems amongst Aboriginal peoples is due to their living conditions and other social and economic factors
Aboriginal demographics are equally important. Demographics is the study of population growth and movement. Demographers study birth and mortality rates, where people live, and how often people move and to where (in addition to other things). They also study things that affect population: income levels, education and other factors. Such statistics are important to governments. They help governments decide what policies to implement. If more people are moving to cities, for example, governments may devote more time and money to developing policies and programs for urban areas. If rural areas have a growing number of people who are seniors (age 65 and more) there is a need to develop rural health care facilities to deal with the medical needs of older people. For Aboriginal people there are demographic trends that will affect both how they live, and how they interact with government in the future
Health Issues
In 1996 the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) reported on a wide variety of factors, both historical and current, that affect Aboriginal peoples. Health issues were an important part of the report. The Commission made the following observations in addition to many others:
- The infant mortality rate (i.e.: children who die within the 1st year of life) is approximately 2x greater for registered Indians than other Canadians
- Registered Indians live 7 to 8 years less than other Canadians
- Infectious diseases, injury, violence and self-destructive behaviour are higher among the Aboriginal population [1]
Such information outlines the seriousness of health issues affecting many First Nations people, and the necessity of finding a remedy to these problems
Infant Mortality
Infant mortality rates for First Nations have been steadily declining since the 1970s. In 1979 the infant mortality rate for First Nations was 27.9 deaths per 1000 live births. In 1999 the rate had dropped to 8.0 deaths per 1000 live births. In comparison the 1999 rate for non-Aboriginal people in Canada was 5.5 per 1000. While this is an improvement, the RCAP report noted that the difference between non-Native and Native infant mortality rates is roughly the same as it was 100 years ago. First Nations also have a stillbirth rate (i.e.: babies who are born dead) that is about 2x the national average.
Infant mortality is a result of other factors affecting Aboriginal people. First, some First Nations’ reserves are isolated from larger cities and towns. Some do not have permanent road access, but are fly-in communities (i.e.: only air travel is possible). A sick infant is often not taken to a hospital, or by the time it arrives at a hospital its condition has become very bad. An infant that shows few signs of sickness can become very ill very quickly. In a city the baby can be taken to a hospital in a matter of minutes. In a fly-in community health care may be hours (or 1 or 2 days) away by plane
Isolated reserves also lack proper medical facilities to provide expectant mothers good pre-natal (i.e.: pre-birth) care and information. Unborn children whose mothers have poor nutrition use alcohol, smoke cigarettes, or drink caffeine are more likely to be born with health problems. Once a baby is born it still requires proper care (what is called post-natal care) to help it grow healthy. Food on isolated reserves is often very expensive (a bag of milk can cost $15 or more). Families on reserves generally have a lower income than other Canadian families because of higher levels of unemployment. Lacking sufficient money their babies are not given sufficient food and nutrition to help them develop. In a report on urban aboriginal poverty and children the Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centers noted that some mothers lack sufficient money to purchase baby formula for their infants. They give them powdered milk instead which lacks the high calorie and nutrients of formula.
There is the added problem of housing. Housing on reserves is a separate issue in some ways, but it relates to infant health (and health in general). Generally reserves in isolated communities lack proper heating, drinkable water, and sanitation/sewage. There is a greater likelihood of a child contracting a disease living in such conditions. Houses on reserves are sometimes old, and in poor condition. The presence of mold in wood houses can causes asthma and respiratory problems in infants. Housing conditions for First Nations and Aboriginal people are generally below the national average
Marlene Thio-Watts, a registered nurse in British Columbia, spoke to the RCAP about her experiences helping Aboriginal women who are pregnant and the problems they face getting adequate health care for their babies:
- Many Aboriginal women are isolated, impoverished and suffering from low self-esteem and sometimes emotional pain. Frequent barriers these women encounter in accessing health care [include] lack of medical coverage. Often women are transient and come here from other provinces, and there’s a lapse in their care. Sometimes [such a lapse] occurs when teens are away from their families [when pregnant] and don’t have communication with them and they don’t have their [health] card numbers, and it takes us days and days to get them to a physician….
- Shortages of food [are an issue]. The pregnancy outreach programs across B.C. are currently lobbying for an increased natal allowance [mother/baby support] from social services. The $25 a month [a mother receives] has not been increased for many, many years.[2]
Alcoholism
Alcoholism is not a problem particular to any ethnic group. People from any social, economic or ethnic background can abuse alcohol. There is a myth that Aboriginal people cannot metabolize (i.e.: absorb and digest) alcohol as well as non-Aboriginal people. There is no scientific evidence to support this claim. There is not even conclusive evidence that alcohol abuse is more of a problem amongst Aboriginal peoples than non-Aboriginal. The Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse reported to the RCAP that alcohol related illnesses are more common amongst Aboriginal peoples. However, the Aboriginal Peoples Survey found that fewer Aboriginal people drank alcohol daily or weekly than non-Aboriginal, and more Aboriginal than non-Aboriginal people reported abstaining from all alcohol.
Aboriginal health organizations are concerned about the lack of health education amongst some Aboriginal people. In addition to the problems alcohol abuse can have on adults and children, it can also affect unborn children. Children of mothers who drink while pregnant are at risk of having either Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) or Fetal Alcohol Effects (a less severe form of FAS). Children with this condition tend to perform poorly in school, and have a more difficult time controlling their social behaviour. As a result they are more likely to leave school which make them more likely to have lower incomes.
FAS/FAE statistics are difficult to find. Some children may have either condition, but not be diagnosed with it. In January 2000, Health Canada held meetings in northern First Nations communities about FAS and FAE. People who took part in the meetings called the problem an “epidemic.”
Part of this shift could be due to many government and community based substance abuse programs that are operated to help Aboriginal peoples cope with a problem which, in the past at least, had a devastating impact on their communities. Some statistics indicate that alcoholism is becoming less of a problem. The admission rate of Aboriginal people into alcohol abuse programs dropped 30% in 1999-2000. Recidivism (i.e.: people who stop drinking and then start again) dropped 40% in 1999-2000
Aboriginal community based programs and programs run by government agencies differ in how they treat alcoholism. Government programs tend to see alcohol abuse as a disease that can be treated. Aboriginal programs tend to look for broader reasons behind alcohol abuse: lack of self-esteem, an abusive past, and a lack of cultural identity. They have adopted a more holistic approach (i.e.: treating the whole person and their problems which lead to alcohol abuse). For some First Nations the problems in their lives have led them to alcohol and other forms of substance abuse. Residential school experiences, for example, have been cited by many as the root cause of their substance abuse.
Health Problems and Poverty
First Nations tend to suffer from certain physical diseases at a higher rate than other Canadians. Some of these diseases are: tuberculosis, cancer, diabetes, and hepatitis. Some of these, such as tuberculosis, are due to the living conditions some First Nations find themselves in. Living in crowded housing allows tuberculosis to spread quickly. Poor home heating and cold conditions make it more likely for someone to develop tuberculosis. It is a treatable disease, but the lack of proper medical care in some reserves means someone may be ill with it for some time and infect other people. Health Canada reports that tuberculosis rates amongst First Nations people is 8 to 10x higher than the Canadian average depending on where in the country a First Nations person lives.
Diabetes is another prevalent disease. Much of this is related to diet. Some experts have argued that part of the problem is First Nations switching from a traditional diet that relied on meat and vegetables to a diet of sugar, starch and oily food. In remote communities unhealthy food is often cheaper than fresh food such as fruits and vegetables. In some communities a single apple can cost $3. Diabetes in severe cases can lead to the amputation of limbs and blindness
Poor nutrition in itself can lead to health problems. Vitamin deficiency can lead to illness and chronic (long-lasting or permanent) health issues for someone as they grow older. Obesity is another possibility for someone with a poor diet. Being overweight is itself a cause of other health problems
Heart disease and cancer differ from other health issues. Smoking is more prevalent amongst First Nations, and heart diseases due to smoking are more common. However, other heart problems occur less in First Nations than other ethnic groups. As regards cancer, there is a lower rate of colon, lung, prostate, breast, and uterine cancer First Nations. There is also a lower rate of leukemia. However, First Nations women are 5x more likely to develop cervical cancer, and there is a higher rate of gallbladder and kidney cancer
Many of these problems can be linked to the general affects of poverty. The RCAP report made a number of important observations regarding the impact of poverty on Aboriginal people:
- 50% of on and off reserve Aboriginal children live in poverty;
- Children of poor mothers are more likely to have low birth weight, chronic health problems, die of injuries, have mental disorders, and drop out of school;
- People living in poverty have poorer nutrition;
- People in poverty are more likely to work in high risk jobs (i.e.: a greater risk of physical injury);
- People in poverty have less health knowledge due to lower levels of education.
Poverty lies at the heart of many of the health problems that affect Aboriginal peoples. Based on RCAP data, 28.6% of Aboriginal people relied on social assistance/welfare for support in 1990 compared to non-Aboriginal people. For First nations that lived on reserves the welfare rate increased to 45%
Health Issues – Off-Reserve/Urban Aboriginal People
Many Aboriginal people live in non-reserve areas. More specific information about this is provided later in this chapter. However, there are health issues relating to off-reserve Aboriginal people that can be outlined here.
Aboriginal people in this category report their health as being worse than non-Aboriginal people. The health of Aboriginal people also tends to decline more quickly than non-Aboriginal as they grow older particularly amongst women. Diseases such as arthritis and diabetes are more prevalent amongst Aboriginal people off-reserve than the rest of the population. In 2001, for example, 22.2% of Aboriginal people living off a reserve (and aged 65 and over) were diagnosed with diabetes. The Canadian average for the same age group was 12.7%. In general the following chronic conditions were most likely to affect off-reserve Aboriginal people.
- Arthritis
- High Blood Pressure
- Asthma
- Stomach problems/intestinal ulcers
- Diabetes
- Heart Problems[3]
Off-reserve Aboriginal people tend to have better access to health care services than those living on reserves. The only place this was not true was in the Arctic where the Inuit live in remote communities with little access to health care. However, as will be outlined later, Aboriginal people in cities and rural areas may have better medical care than those on reserves but they still fall behind the rest of the Canadian population.
Pollution
You may think that pollution is a problem associated with larger cities where there are more cars and factories. Many First Nations live in urban settings or on reserves close to large cities. For them pollution is as much a concern as anyone else. However, very dangerous pollution is in the north as well and affects First Nations.
Mercury, often used in the production of hydro-electric power, is a poisonous substance for people. In northern Ontario and Quebec mercury poisoning in fish is a serious problem. Once a person eats mercury, no matter how small the amount, it stays in their system and continues to build up as more is eaten. People who eat a lot of traditional food, such as fish, can ingest a large amount of mercury over their lifetime. Even in the arctic mercury and other chemicals have been found in fish. These same chemicals are also found in polar bears and seals. These animals also eat fish. The chemicals build up inside their bodies, and are then passed to the Inuit who hunt and eat these animals
In parts of the north there are also a number of abandoned military sites that contain dangerous chemicals. In the 1950s and 1960s the Canadian government built a series of radar sites in the north. When these radar stations were no longer needed they were abandoned. Drums full of chemicals (such as PCBs) were left behind. Cleaning these sites will require tens of millions of dollars
There is also the issue of drinkable (or potable) water. In October, 2005, the Cree community of Kasechewan in northern Ontario made national headlines because of the poor standard of drinking water in the community caused by a malfunctioning treatment plant. Dangerous bacteria, such as e-coli, were being detected regularly in the community’s drinking water. However, Kasechewan was not the first community to suffer from this. For example, in 1993 the community of Pukatawagan in northern Manitoba was placed on a boil-water order because e-coli bacteria were found in the drinking water. While the community had a water treatment plant, a sewage plant and lagoon, the intake pipe for the water treatment plant was downstream from the sewage plant (as was the case in Kasechwan). That meant that sewage water was being taken into the water treatment plant. The chief of the community at that time said that when the reserve was given control of the water and sewage plants their budget was not increased to cover the costs of properly running either. Women from the community walked 600 kms from the Pas (a town in northern Manitoba) to Winnipeg to draw attention to the problem in their community
Despite this national attention other reserves continued and continue to suffer from the same problems. Dozens of reserves currently have to boil their drinking water. E-coli and other bacteria can be very dangerous if ingested. They can cause minor stomach problems, but can make someone so ill that they die (due to either dehydration or kidney damage)
Suicide and Family Violence
Suicide rates amongst First Nations (Indian and Inuit) are far higher than the national average. It is particularly high for men and women between the ages of 15 and 24. Health Canada reports the follow statistics for 1993:
- For First Nations men aged 15 to 24 the rate is 126 per 100,000. The Canadian average for men in the same age group is 24 per 100,000.
- Young First Nations women have a suicide rate of 35 per 100,000 compared to 5 per 100,000 for Canadian women.[4]
Clearly the suicide rate is much worse for First Nations people. While these statistics are old there is no indication that the trend has improved.
Finding ways to deal with this problem is difficult. However, certain trends have been found. First, the statistics above are national averages for First Nations. Based on some studies it is known that some First Nations communities have a far lower suicide rate than others. Why is this so? Two people studied First Nations communities in British Columbia. They found that communities that had control over certain things had a lower youth suicide rate. These things were:
- self-government
- land claims
- education
- health services
- cultural facilities
- police and fire services
One First Nations community that had no control over any of these factors had a suicide rate of 128 per 100,000 people. Another that controlled all 6 factors had a rate of 2 per 100,000. This study was replicated (i.e.: done again) with more communities over a longer period of time and the same trend was found.
In 1995 the Royal Commission on Aboriginal People issued a special report on Aboriginal youth suicide. As regards First Nations and Inuit youth the RCAP found a number of factors that accounted for the high suicide rate. Particularly important was the higher incidence of depression amongst youth, and the lack of economic advancement. Unemployment rates in 1996 amongst youth aged 15 to 24 was 36% - double the Canadian average for that age group. In addition there are problems of poverty, overcrowded housing, and access to a decent standard of living (i.e.: sufficient food, clean water). Feeling marginalized in Canadian society or within their own community is also factor. In eastern James Bay (northern Quebec) those youth who attempted suicide reported home stress as the chief reason for their suicide attempt
First Nations who spoke with the RCAP reported that the long term affects of residential schools is still an issue. They were not raised in an environment that taught them to be loving towards others. As young children they would be disciplined with violence, and now use that same tactic with their children. As is true with any culture, those who are raised in a violent, abusive family tend to be abusers when they are older
Reporting of family violence is difficult for any group. Unreported violence and abuse at home can go on for years in families from any ethnic group. Within First Nations families there has been a concerted effort to deal with these issues. In the Northwest Territories, for example, a group called Pauktuutit (Inuit Women of Canada) has instituted programs and efforts to combat violence and abuse against women and children in some Inuit homes. Isolated communities in the arctic often lack police services. Women feel there is nowhere for them to report incidents of violence. In their 2003 newsletter Pauktuutit stated that studies and anecdotal evidence (i.e.: interviews with people) suggests that 8 out of 10 Inuit girls and 5 out of 10 Inuit boys are sexually abused. Working with the federal and territorial government Pauktuutit helps to create literature and programs that are more culturally sensitive to Inuit people in an effort to end this problem
As with alcoholism, First Nations and Aboriginal programs to deal with suicide and family violence attempt to deal with problems on a community and family level. For small reserve communities in particular what happens in one family impacts on many other people in the community due to the inter-relations between families. Traditional healers and ceremonies are used, for example. For Aboriginal peoples in urban settings there are agencies, such as Indian Friendship Centers (explained below), to help them with problems
Population
The study of population is called demographics. Demographics covers a wide variety of issues: birth rate, death rate, where people live, and trends in population movements (movements of people to cities or elsewhere). First Nations have undergone a number of important demographic shifts that will substantially affect them in the near and late future.
Birth Rate, Life Expectancy and Population
The First Nations’ birth rate has been falling steadily over the last thirty years. However, they still have the fastest growth of any ethnic group in Canada. In 1975, the average Native woman had 6.2 children over their lifetime. By 1985 this had fallen to 3.2 children. The average Canadian women that year had 1.67 children over their lifetime. Birth rates are calculated differently today. In 1999 First Nations had a birth rate of 23.0 births per 1000 people while the birth rate of other Canadians was approximately 12 per 1000 people.
Combined with this shrinking, but still higher than average birth rate, the lifespan of First Nations people has also been improving. The chart below provides statistics on life span for First Nations.
| Year | Male Life Expectancy (years) | Female Life Expectancy (years) |
|---|---|---|
| 1956 | 53.8 | 61 |
| 1986 | 63.8 | 71 |
| 2000 | 68.9 | 76.6 |
Another factor increased the number of people who identified themselves as status Indians: Bill C-31. Under a previous Indian Act if a status Indian woman married a non-Indian male she and her children lost their status. However, if a status Indian man married a non-Indian woman he kept his status, and his new wife also became a status Indian (as did their children).
Starting in the late 1970s a number of First Nations women who had lost their status began to complain to the federal government in Ottawa and the Department of Indian Affairs that this practice was discriminatory. Due to their efforts, in 1985 Bill C-31 repealed that part of the Indian Act that took a woman’s status away. Many women and their children applied to have their Indian status revived. This change to the Indian Act, and natural birth rates, increased the population of status Indians in Canada by 33% between 1985 and 1990. By 1999, approximately 100,000 people had regained their Indian status.
The combination of these factors has increased the number of people who identify themselves as either First Nation, or Métis and Inuit. In the past the high birth rate amongst First Nations was offset by the low life expectancy. Based on the 2001 census there were 1,066,500 people in Canada (3.4% of the population) who claimed some form of Aboriginal ancestry.[6] This is an incredible increase compared to 1901 when the Aboriginal population was 127, 941.
Such numbers and statistics seem very dry and boring at first. However, population is important for a number of reasons. First, it is estimated that the Aboriginal population of Canada will be approximately 1.4 million people by 2017 (4.4% of the population). The largest Aboriginal populations are in the northern territories (84% of Nunavut is Aboriginal), and the Prairie Provinces. By 2016 it is estimated that the Aboriginal population of the Prairie Provinces will increase by a large amount.
| Year | Manitoba Pop. (percentage of population) | Saskatchewan Pop. (percentage of population) | Alberta Pop. (percentage of population) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2001 | 159,400 (13.8%) | 138,300 (13.8%) | 167,900 (5.5%) |
| 2017 | 221,100 (18.4%) | 202,800 (20.8%) | 232,600 (6.3%) |
What will this increased population mean for Aboriginal people? As their numbers grow, particularly in the prairies, so to will their political power during elections. As a larger component of the population, politicians will be more likely to listen to Aboriginal concerns. Canada already has territorial premiers who are Aboriginal, but will the larger Aboriginal population on the prairies led to the election of the first provincial premier who is First Nations or Métis?
Populations on reserves are also expected to increase. On some reserves there are severe housing shortages and problems with water and sanitation. If the population continues to increase, with no corresponding investment in housing and infrastructure, many problems on reserves will become worse.
Statistics also show that a large number of these Aboriginal people will be very young – between the ages of 20 and 27. It is estimated that Aboriginal people of that age will make up 30% of all people that age in Saskatchewan in 2017. Currently Aboriginal peoples have a higher rate of unemployment than non-Aboriginal people. If this trend continues what affect will this have on Aboriginal people in the future who are young and more likely to be unemployed? What programs should be put in place to help these young people get an education and secure jobs?
Off-Reserve/Urban Aboriginal People
Information from the 2001 census shows that about 1/3 of all Aboriginal people live on reserves. The remaining people (67%) live off-reserve. Approximately 27% live in large cities, 21% in small cities, and 19% in rural areas. As regards status Indians, 48% live on reserves and 41% live in large cities. In total over 700,000 Aboriginal people live in a non-reserve setting. Of these 358,000 are status Indians. Amongst status Indians, a slight majority still live on reserves compared to off-reserve.
It is thought that a large percentage of First Nations who reside off-reserve are people who regained their status under Bill C-31. Reserves and bands have been slow to re-accept these people back into the community – in the late 1990s only 2.4% nation wide had returned back to reserves. This low rate of return could also be due to these people being accustomed to living in a non-reserve setting.
First Nations who leave their reserves to migrate to cities tend to be from reserves that are close to cities. People from isolated communities (i.e.: have no permanent roads to their community) tend to stay on their reserves. People who live on such reserves are also more likely to report their Native language as their mother tongue (i.e.: the language they first learned and are more comfortable with). A difficulty expressing themselves in English or French is one reason why they may stay on their reserves and not move to other parts of Canada.
Off-reserve status Indians create a particular set of issues for the federal government and First Nations. Under the current system, most federal services for First Nations are provided through the band system. With a large urban First Nations population it is more difficult now for the government to provide services. Under the constitution the provinces provide most social services: health care, welfare, education, etc. However, “Indians” are a federal responsibility under the constitution. This makes it difficult to establish programs to deal with issues specific to off-reserve Aboriginal people. For example, the unemployment rate for Aboriginal people is 5 or 6 times higher than non-Aboriginal people. Unemployment and poverty are important factors in many social problems. The need to establish programs to help Aboriginal people, therefore, is very high.
Aboriginal Responses: Indian Friendship Centres
An outline of what is provided at the North Bay Indian Friendship Centre gives one an idea of the many programs and services the Centres offer their Aboriginal clients:
- Current programs and services being provided are: Native Family Court worker, Criminal Court worker, Aboriginal Alcohol & Drug Worker, Healthy Babies Program, Long Term Care Support Worker, Aboriginal Family Support Worker, Pre-Natal Worker, FAS/FAE Community Support Worker, Youth Worker, Healing & Wellness Co-ordinator, Life Long Care Worker, Health Outreach, Native Inmate Liaison Worker, and our local LDM employment unit.[8]
The OFIFC has outlined the need, however, for greater assistance for urban Aboriginal peoples. Increased funding for food, basic medicine (non-prescription) and supplies for parents of infants is required. An outreach programs to deal with the higher incidence of teenage Aboriginal girls becoming pregnant is also required. OFIFC sees poverty as one of the greatest problem facing Aboriginal peoples in cities. Poverty prevents Aboriginal families from having enough money for food. It also prevents proper care of infants as mothers do not have enough money for diapers or proper food for their child. In a report on urban Aboriginal child poverty the OFIFC reported that:
- The psychological effects of poverty on Aboriginal children and parents were mentioned in 100% of the interviews. Words such as low-self esteem, depression, anger, self-doubt, intimidation, frustration, shame and hopelessness were used to describe some of the crushing feelings of Aboriginal children and parents living in poverty.[9]
Friendship Centres are important institutions for Aboriginal people living in urban areas. Their programs are designed to help solve or at least alleviate some of the issues and problems that Aboriginal people face when they leave their reserve community and live in cities
Aboriginal Responses: Urban Reserves
As the number of Aboriginal people living in urban areas increase there has been a trend towards creating what are called urban reserves. Some reserves are urban by default. The Musqueam First Nation in Vancouver and St. Mary’s Reserve in Fredericton found themselves surrounded by city over time. In 1984, however, the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation secured reserve land in the city of Saskatoon to operate an urban reserve.
Through negotiations with the Department of Indian Affairs and the City of Saskatoon the Muskeg Lake Cree obtained 35 acres of city land. It is now reserve land. This land was obtained through a process known as Treaty Lands Entitlement (TLE). TLE is a way to provide reserve lands to First Nations that they were not given during past treaty negotiations or due to another grievance through the specific land claims process. In the case of the Muskeg Lake Cree their original reserve was not large enough based on the number of people in their band. Instead of seeking an expansion of their main reserve, Chief Wallace Tawpisim and members of the band council asked for the land in Saskatoon.
Taxes are collected by the Cree at a rate similar to the city’s taxation rate. With this money they pay for city services (i.e.: garbage collection, sewage and water, etc.) on the reserve. The reserve is operated in the same manner as an industrial park in any city. Several multi-million dollar office complexes have been built on the reserve. Hundreds of Aboriginal people find employment on the reserve. There are currently several developments on the reserve, and there are plans for a strip mall with stores and a gas station. In total there are over 40 businesses currently operating on the reserve. The estimated commercial value of the land is placed at approximately $18 million.
Since the creation of the Muskeg Lake Cree Nation reserve the federal government and Saskatchewan First Nations signed a Treaty Land Entitlement agreement. This agreement will help other First Nations purchase municipal land within city limits in negotiation with the city government. Over a dozen parcels of urban land have been purchased in different Saskatchewan cities such as Prince Albert and Battleford.
In Winnipeg the Long Plain First Nation is hoping to build a $60 million dollar complex on a parcel of city land. Various plans, including a library, museum, restaurant, day care and a five-storey office complex are planned for the site.
Urban reserves are a response to the growing urban Aboriginal population. While some people oppose this development this is often due to a misconception about what is involved in such projects. Taxation, for example, is not levied by the city against urban reserves. However, the First Nation taxes businesses on the reserve and pays the full amount to the city for the provision of city services. All city by-laws and regulations apply to businesses on the reserve
Urban reserves provide First Nations with a great deal of hope in cities. They offer greater employment opportunities. They provide an environment for First Nations owned businesses to develop (although non-Aboriginal people operate businesses on the reserves as well). These reserves also provide a location to provide urban First Nations a centralized location to access services. For First Nations government such reserves provide a much stronger tax base than more remote rural reserves. Revenue from such reserves can help to fund social services and other programs that are administered by a First Nation to meet their specific needs.
Conclusion
Aboriginal peoples face a variety of issues and difficulties as they move with the rest of Canada into the twenty-first century. Health issues affect Aboriginal people more than other Canadians. The growth of an urban Aboriginal population means that the older way of delivering government services (i.e.: the reserve system) are no longer effective in all cases. How these issues are dealt with will determine how well Aboriginal peoples will do in a modern Canada.
Review Questions
1. Based on your reading of this chapter, how often are poverty and poor economic conditions factors in living/health conditions for Aboriginal peoples?
2. What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome? What is Fetal Alcohol Effects? Why are these two conditions concerns for First Nations people?
3. Using the Statistics Canada web site research some of the health issues affecting Aboriginal people. What specific policies could be developed to deal with these issues? Develop some ideas with a group of students?
4. Using the Pauktuutit website research what specific programs this organization is putting in place to deal with domestic/family violence? How do these programs reflect the general beliefs of the Inuit?
5. Examine the health section of the Métis Nation of Ontario website. What health services does it provide for Métis in Ontario?
6. Many nineteenth century treaties on the prairies made mention of a “medicine chest.” What was the medicine chest? How have Canada’s courts, governments and First Nations interpreted (i.e.: understood) the medicine chest promise in these treaties? How does this affect First Nations’ health policy?
7. What programs and policies has the National Aboriginal Health Organization put into place to help Aboriginal Peoples? In a group analyze the web site. Have each student or pair of students pick on policy/program and write up a short summary of the program and how effective they think it currently is.
8. The Congress of Aboriginal Peoples was founded in 1971 to serve the needs of off-reserve Aboriginal peoples. Using their website link, work with a group to examine the programs the CAP has to address the issues of off-reserve Aboriginal peoples.
9. Using the internet search for arguments both for and against the creation of urban reserves. Do you think urban reserves will help First Nations in cities?
10. The RCAP report on Aboriginal health issues and other organizations have stated that access to health centres and workers who understand Aboriginal culture is needed. Examine the web site of the Shkagamik-Kwe Health Centre and the De dwa da dehs nye Aboriginal Health Centre How are these centres attempting to address this concern?
11. Examine some websites of different Indian Friendship Centres using the Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centres web site. What common programs are offered by the centres? Do you see a common purpose behind each centre?
Internet Resources
- Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centres
- National Aboriginal Health Organization]
- Pauktuutit – Inuit Women of Canada
- Métis Nation of Ontario – Health Services
- Aboriginal Nurses Association of Canada
- Congress of Aboriginal Peoples
- Shkagamik-Kwe Health Centre
- De dwa da dehs nye Aboriginal Health Centre
- Health Canada – First Nations and Inuit Health (Drinking Water)
- Health Canada – First Nations and Inuit Health
- Aboriginal Peoples of Canada – A Demographic Profile
- Muskeg Lake Cree Nation
- Background Information – Muskeg Lake Cree Urban Reserve
Notes
- ↑ RCAP Report. Volume 3, Gathering Strength
- ↑ RCAP, Volume 3. Gathering Strength
- ↑ Statistics Canada, Aboriginal Peoples Survey 2001 – Initial Findings: Well-being of the non-reserve Aboriginal Population (2001): 15.
- ↑ Health Canada, Acting on What we Know: Prevent Youth Suicide in First Nations. The Report of the Advisory Group on Suicide Prevention (Ottawa: Health Canada, n.d.): 23.
- ↑ Pamela Williamson, John Roberts, First Nations People 2nd edition (Toronto: Emond Montgomery Publications, Ltd.: 2004)
- ↑ Statistics Canada, The Daily, Tuesday, June 28, 2005. “Canada’s Aboriginal Population in 2017”
- ↑ Statistics Canada, Projections of the Aboriginal Populations, Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2001-2017
- ↑ Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centres
- ↑ Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centres, Urban Aboriginal Child Poverty: A Status Report on Aboriginal Children & Their Families in Ontario (Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centres October 2000)
| E. Aboriginal People and First Nations Today → 1. Land Claims → 2. First Nations: Self Government → 3. Resource Rights → 4. First Nations: Health and Demographics → 5. Education → 6. First Nations and the Justice System |
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