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E. The War of 1812
From HCO Jr
| Part 4. British North America 1760-1830 → A. American Revolution → B. Coming of the Loyalists → C. Colony of Lower Canada → D. Colony of Upper Canada → E. War of 1812 |
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A Introduction: The War of 1812
The only war between Canada and the United States is the War of 1812. It was, in reality, a war between Great Britain and the US. However, the US could not attack Britain directly. It was too far away. British North America was right beside the United States, and would be an easy target. Thomas Jefferson, the US president, thought Canada would be easily defeated. It would be "a mere matter of marching" troops into Canada, Jefferson said. Canada, however, was much harder to defeat than Jefferson thought.
What caused the War of 1812? What battles were fought? Why were the Canadian and British troops able to hold off the American invasion? This chapter will help you answer these questions, and learn about some of the important people who took part in the war.
The Causes of the War: Aboriginal Peoples
First Nations played a very important role in North American politics. They were still a powerful military force. First Nations warriors could pose a serious threat to the British or the Americans. When conflict arose between First Nations and the United States (or Britain) it was often over the issue of land. As more settlers arrived in the United States, and the population grew, conflicts over land became more common.
In the United States land was becoming expensive. Settlers always wanted access to cheap (or sometimes even free) land to start farming. The only place free land was available was in the western territories. Settlement kept moving west throughout the nineteenth century. Eventually settlers began to move into the Ohio Valley.
The United States government would sign treaties, but there were many problems with these treaties. Some chiefs did not sign the treaties, some did not want to give up their land, others saw settlers as a threat. Sometimes the treaties were not well explained to First Nations while at other times the government lied to the First Nations.
These battles started in the 1790s. First Nations did very well against the Americans. They defeated American soldiers and settlers in a number of battles. Eventually the Americans defeated the First Nations at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Despite this defeat the First Nations continued to resist the Americans.
In the early 1800s a chief from the Shawnee nation put together a confederacy of different Aboriginal people to keep the settlers out of the Ohio Valley. This man was Tecumseh. Tecumseh and the warriors he led fought against settlers and American military troops that entered the Ohio Valley.
Many politicians in the United States thought that Britain was supporting Tecumseh in his battles against the American military. First Nations warriors often had British muskets (rifles) and equipment. Britain, however, was not supporting Tecumseh. His warriors had British muskets and other items because they gained them through trade with British fur traders. In fact, the lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada was very worried that this misunderstanding might lead to war with the United States.
He was right to be worried. American politicians did not believe the British. Some American politicians began to pressure President James Madison to declare war on Great Britain. The United States could not attack Britain directly, but it could attack Upper Canada. If Upper Canada was conquered Tecumseh and his warriors would no longer be able to purchase British muskets, weapons and equipment.
Tecumseh believed that he would receive better treatment from the British/Canadian government than the American government. When the War of 1812 started, Tecumseh offered an alliance to the British. He and the warriors in his confederacy would fight for the British side. In return, Tecumseh wanted all of Michigan to be set aside as a protected Indian territory if the British won the war. Tecumseh did not want any settlers allowed into Michigan. The British agreed to this condition.
European Causes
There were other reasons why some politicians in the United States wanted to declare war on Great Britain. These reasons grew out of a large war between Britain and France: the Napoleonic Wars.
The Napoleonic Wars
In the 1790s the new ruler of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, began to send his armies across Europe. French armies managed to defeat the armies of many countries, and conquer a great deal of land. Eventually only Great Britain and Russia remained as the two large, powerful nations not under French control.
Napoleon wanted to invade Great Britain. This is very difficult to do. Britain is an island. To get his troops across the English Channel Napoleon needed to defeat the British Royal Navy. At that time it was the most powerful navy in the world. At the Battle of Trafalgar, the British Navy defeated the combined navies of France and Spain. Napoleon's chance to invade Britain was lost.
Napoleon decided that he would use what remained of his navy to surround Britain. Because it is an island, and it had many overseas colonies, Britain relied on trade. Napoleon hoped that his navy could blockade Britain: it would stop all ships and stop them from trading with Britain.
Britain responded by using its navy to blockade France and all of the countries that it had conquered. Any ship trying to trade with France or French controlled countries would be stopped by a British naval ship, and taken to a British port.
Impressment
Life for sailors in the British Royal Navy was not very good. The work was dangerous. Many sailors died of disease and poor food. Regular sailors were paid very little. If you broke a rule on ship you could be punished by whipping. For these reasons many British sailors deserted: they left the British navy without permission. Thousands of British sailors deserted the British Navy.
Many of these men found jobs on merchant ships in the United States. However, the British navy wanted these deserters back. These men had to be punished for leaving their job with the navy. Sometimes British naval ships would stop American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean, send soldiers on board, and take back any sailors who were deserters. This was called impressment. The British Navy started impressing deserters as early as 1803.
British impressment gangs would even go to port towns in Britain, the United States and Canada and haul men out of pubs. At this time people did not have passports or carry anything to identify themselves. Sometimes these impressment gangs would take men who had never been in the Royal Navy.
This led to a problem between two ships: the British warship Leopard and an American merchant ship The Chesapeake. In 1807, the Leopard attacked the Chesapeake. There were deserters on board. During the battle, twenty American sailors were killed. Only one British deserter was found on board. He was taken back to Halifax, Nova Scotia, and hanged. Many Americans believed that this attack was unfair. Some demanded that the United States declare on Great Britain for this attack. However, the president at this time, Thomas Jefferson, did not declare war.
Trading Rights
The Napoleonic Wars led to another problem: trading. American merchant ships wanted to trade freely with France and Britain because the United States was a neutral country. This means it did not support either side during the Napoleonic Wars. As a neutral country, US merchant ships should be able to trade with either country.
However, as stated earlier, neither Britain nor France wanted to allow the United States to trade with one another. France's navy was not large enough to stop many American ships. Britain's navy, however, was large enough. The Royal Navy stopped twice as many American ships as the French navy.
If an American ship was carrying contraband it was seized (or taken) by the British navy. Contraband is anything that the British government thought would help the French government in the war. Eventually the British government said almost all goods were contraband. Many American ships were stopped by the British navy, and their goods taken.
The War Hawks
There were many reasons why the United States and Great Britain had strained relations. However, countries do not go to war unless their politicians agree to declare war. In the United States both the President and Congress have to agree to declare war on another country.
In the United States there was a group of politicians in Congress that wanted President Jefferson (and later President Madison) to declare war on Great Britain. These men were known as the War Hawks. These congressmen came largely from the new interior states such as Kentucky and South Carolina. Two War Hawks, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina and Henry Clay of Kentucky, pushed the president to declare war.
War Hawks were angry about what Britain was doing to the United States. They believed the British were supporting Tecumseh. The War Hawks thought the United States should take a stand again impressment. Lastly, the War Hawks did not like the British navy seizing American merchant ships. Clay and Calhoun thought that Britain was insulting the United States.
The War Hawks wanted both Jefferson and Madison to declare war on Britain, but attack Canada. They did not think that Canada could stand against the United States. There were not many British troops in any of the British colonies. When James Madison became president he was told by Jefferson that taking Canada would be "a mere matter of marching."
Upper Canada When the War Started
The war officially began when President James Madison declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812. Leading the British troops in Upper Canada was General Isaac Brock. When the war started General Brock did not have an easy job. Defending Upper Canada was going to be very difficult.
When President Jefferson said it would be easy to conquer Upper Canada he was not boasting. If you were alive in 1812 you might have thought that Upper Canada had no chance of defeating the United States. Upper Canada had a populaton of only 80,000 people in 1812. The United States had a population of 7.5 million. Most of Britain's soldiers were busy fighting French troops in Europe. Britain had very few soldiers to send to Upper Canada to fight the Americans.
General Brock only had 5000 British soldiers in his army. There were a few thousand First Nations allies who agreed to help the British. Lastly, there was the colonial militia. The militia was made up of all able-bodied men in the colony. These men had little or no military training. Militia men often had to supply their own muskets and weapons.
Lastly, many of the new immigrants to Upper Canada were Americans. These were the late loyalists: Americans who came to Upper Canada long after the American Revolution. They came to Upper Canada because there was cheap land to settle on. Military leaders in Upper Canada were afraid that these late loyalists might rise up and join the American army when it invaded. If the late loyalists did not join with the Americans many leaders in Upper Canada thought that they would not help in the defence of Upper Canada.
The Campaign of 1812: The First Battles
The War of 1812 is broken up into campaigns. Because the roads were so bad at this time it was very difficult to move soldiers around in the winter. Battles only took place between the late spring and autumn. For this reason each year of the war is called a campaign. There are three campaigns in total: 1812, 1813, and 1814.
When the war started General Brock knew that Upper Canada would be hard to defend. American soldiers could invade from a number of different points. General Brock also needed to convince the First Nations living in Upper Canada to support the British. To do this he needed a victory against the Americans.
Brock decided to attack an American fort on Lake Michigan: Fort Michilimackinac. With the help of Ojibwa warriors Brock attacked and took the fort.
While Brock was in the north attacking the fort, a large force of American soldiers attacked Upper Canada from Detroit. They were led by General Hull. There were very few British soldiers to stop General Hull. Only militia forces and First Nations warriors led by Techumseh fought to hold back the American attack.
General Hull could have used his forces to push past the Canadian defences. However, he only attacked so far into Upper Canada before retreating back to Fort Detroit. Why did he do this? General Hull was very afraid of First Nations warriors. He thought they were very vicious fighters. Hull heard that hundreds (and maybe thousands) were waiting to ambush his men. Afraid for his safety, he retreated back.
General Brock hurried his troops down to join up with Tecumseh's men. They surrounded Fort Detroit. Brock did not have many men. He had Tecumseh's warriors change their clothes and march around the fort to make it look as if he had many more First Nations warriors then he actually did.
Finally, Brock sent General Hull a message. In this letter he told Hull that he would attack Fort Detroit very soon. When the battle began, Brock warned General Hull that the First Nations warriors could not be controlled and there was nothing that he could do to stop them. This scared General Hull so much that he surrendered Fort Detroit without a fight.
Campaign of 1812: The Battle of Queenston Heights
At 4:00 am. Brock mounted his horse Alfred, and after a muddy 10 km ride in a cold drizzle, arrived outside Queenston at dawn, where he met up with the York Volunteer Militia.
The Americans had pulled together a large force of soldiers and militia on their side of the Niagara River. Luckily for Brock, most of the American militia were poorly trained. They had also not been paid a salary in months, and did not want to cross the river to fight. Some of the militia forces were part of the New York State Militia. They told the American generals they were not even allowed to fight outside of New York State. As a result, many of the men on the American side did not even take part in the battle.
When the American forces landed they quickly tried to capture an area known as Queenston Heights. This is a large ridge that overlooks the area. In warfare it is often best to capture hills and other raised areas. They are easier to defend. Once the area was taken and held by the Americans they could bring more troops and soldiers across the river.
Brock knew he could not let the Americans remain on Queenston Heights. He ordered his men to attack the Americans and drive them off the heights. General Brock led the charge on his horse. Unfortunately, he was an easy target. He wore a bright red coat (like all British soldiers) and a large hat with a large white plume on top. It was obvious to the American soldiers that he was a general. Brock was shot in the chest as he led his men up the hill. Brock was taken back to the British camp where he died.
The Americans waited for reinforcements, but they never came. The New York Militia refused to cross the river into Upper Canada. If these reinforcements had arrived the Americans might have won the Battle of Queenston Heights.
This was a great victory for Upper Canada. Over 300 Americans were killed or wounded and 1000 were taken prisoner. The British/Iroquois/Canadian forces lost only 28 men, and only 77 were wounded. General Brock became a great hero of Canadian history. A monument to Isaac Brock stands at Queenston Heights.
The Campaign of 1813
If the Campaign of 1812 was a good year for Canada, the Campaign of 1813 was very good for the United States. Many of the important battles fought this year were won by the United States. American soldiers even attacked and conquered York (Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada.
York was an easy target. The fort (Fort York) was only half-built. There were only 700 soldiers stationed there. It only had four small cannons to defend itself against attack. It was a very tiny village.
American losses in the Battle of York were about 80 killed and 206 wounded. British losses were 60 killed and 89 wounded, plus 290 prisoners taken by the Americans. Once York was conquered the American soldiers set fire to the parliament buildings there, the library and several other buildings. However, the American soldiers did not remain long in York. They were afraid of a counter-attack from Kingston. On May 2, 1813, the US soldiers left York.
The Battle of Stoney Creek
The Battle of Stoney Creek was fought on June 5, 1813|June 5 and June 6, 1813 near Stoney Creek, Ontario. The Canadians and British, under Major General John Vincent, led a surprise attack on the Americans who were moving towards Burlington Heights. General Vincent knew of the American attack because two teenagers who settled in the area, Billy Green and Levi Green, spied the American army marching towards Stoney Creek. It was a large army of 3000 soldiers.
The Americans stopped for the night at the farm of James Gage and made camp. They locked the Gage family in their cellar. Billy Green travelled to the British camp to tell General Vincent where the American camp was. However, Vincent already knew. One of his officers, James Fitzgibbon, had already snuck into the American army camp pretending to sell butter. His disguise was so good that he travelled all through the American camp and learned how many men they had.
The American force was larger than the British/Canadian force. A surprise attack, however, might help the British defeat the Americans. A force of 700 British soldiers left to attack the American force at dawn. They left at 11:30 pm and travelled 10 kms to the American camp.
The Battle of Stoney Creek was a vicious battle. It was fought in complete darkness. When all of the soldiers began to fire their muskets the battle field was covered with smoke. Soldiers could not always see who they were attacking. Some soldiers were killed by men from their own army.
This battle was very short. It only lasted 45 minutes. Eventually the American forces retreated.British losses were about eighty dead, and 140 wounded. The Americans lost about 3 times as many soldiers, with many left wounded. The Battle of Stoney Creek, fought on the birthday of King George III, was a turning point in the defense of Upper Canada, and was the beginning of an effort to push the Americans completely out of the Niagara region.
Laura Secord
Eventually Laura became lost. She had travelled for a few days in the forest. She was found by a group of Iroquois warriors who brought her to General Fitzgibbon. She told Fitzgibbon where the American army was. Fitzgibbon already had this information. Iroquois scouts had discovered the American army. However, he was impressed by Laura Secord's bravery.
Iroquois Victory at Beaver Dams
This force of 480 men was ordered to ambush the American forces at Beaver Dams. They attacked on June 24, 1813. The Iroquois and British soldiers hid in the forest. As the American forces advanced they fired their muskets. Many American soldiers were killed or wounded before they could take cover. The battle continued for three hours. The American officers ordered their men to retreat back to Fort George, but the Iroquois attacks made it difficult for the American soldiers to follow orders.
The Battle of Beaver Dams was one of the turning points in the War of 1812. After this defeat the Americans did not again venture out in force. They did not try to attack and conquered the Niagara area again until July, 1814, during teh Battle of Lundy's Lane.
Tecumseh Killed at Moraviantown
- "When it comes your time to die, be not like those whose hearts are filled with the fear of death, so that when their time comes they weep and pray for a little more time to live their lives over again in a different way. Sing your death song and die like a hero going home."
-Tecumseh
The Battle of Moraviantown (also known as the Battle of the Thames) was fought on October 5, 1813. The British forces, led by Henry Procter, were retreating back to get more supplies. The soldiers were running low on ammunition and food. Fighting alongside the British/Canadian soldiers was Tecumseh and his warriors.
As the British forces withdrew they were attacked by American soldiers led by William Henry Harrison at the small community of Moraviantown. Henry Proctor ordered his men to retreat. Tecumseh and his warriors continued to attack the American soldiers to give the British and Canadian soldiers a chance to retreat.
Some men claimed to have killed Tecumseh. Richard M. Johnson (from Kentucky) said that he shot Tecumseh with his pistol when the chief attacked him with a hatchet. However, there is no proof that Johnson killed Tecumseh.
The Battle of Châteauguay
A force of Quebec light militia, known as the Voltigeurs, under Lieutenant-Colonel Charles-Michel de Salaberry erected a barricade on the Châteauguay River. This was the route that the Americans would take to Montreal.
On October 26, 1813, Salaberry led his force of 1,600 French Canadian militia and aboriginal allies against the Americans. The American army was almost twice as large, 3000 men. Salaberry knew that in a long battle that his men would lose. He ordered 300 of his men to hide in the forest and blow hunting horns. When General Hampton heard this noise he thought the Canadians had a much larger army. They retreated back to the United States.
Americans Beaten Back at Crysler's Farm
The Americans arrived on October 16. General Wilkinson gave the order to cross the river. A thunder storm was beginning to arrive at the same time. As the boats began to cross the St. Lawrence the wind became stronger. It was dark and stormy. By the morning it was obvious that many of the boats had become lost in the night. Fifteen of the boat had been destroyed by hitting rocks. Other boats were seriously damaged and could not make it across the river. The American troops had to wait until October 20th to get across the St. Lawrence.
Wilkinson assembled his men on the Canadian side of the St. Lawrence River. On October 29, 1813, they began the march towards Montreal.
Eventually the American force reached a point on the St. Lawrence called the Long Sault Rapids. Wilkinson had to put his troops back on shore, and walk them past the rapids. Wilkinson landed his troops near a farm owned by John Chrysler.
The advancing British/Canadian troops knew that the Americans would have to land at the rapids. General Wilkinson knew that the British troops were close behind him. He ordered his men to attack this small British force. A small force of American soldiers attacked the British. They were ambushed by a group of French militia and First Nations warriors. This small group had to retreat from the much larger American force. As the American forces chased the French and First Nation soldiers, they were attacked by the remaining British/Canadian forces. Faced by this new force, the American soldiers broke ranks and retreated.
The Americans lost the Battle of Chrysler's Farm even though they had far more men than the British/Canadian and First Nations' forces. American losses were high: 102 killed, 237 wounded, and more than 100 soldier went missing. In comparison the British commanders reported ony 22 killed, 148 wounded and 9 missing.
War at this time, however, was very different than modern warfare. There was a respect between opposing armies. The British commanders were very impressed by one of the American regiments - the US 25th Infantry Regiment. One of the British colonels wrote to the American colonel who commanded the 25th Infantry. He congratulated the American colonel on how well his troops did in battle, and said that they should meet after the war as friends.
The Battle of Crysler's Farm was truly a battle that saved Canada. The British were now firmly in control of both sides of the St. Lawrence, dashing the hopes of those in Washington who had boasted that the conquest of Canada would be a 'mere matter of marching'.
Wilcocks Burns Niagara
The victories at Chrysler's Farm and Chateauguay were very important for Canada. Quebec City and Montreal would not longer face an invasion. However, the loss at the Battle of Moraviantown was serious. American forces now controlled most of southwestern Upper Canada.
Now the Niagara Peninsula was in a vulnerable position. Americans could invade from across the Niagara River and they could invade from their new position in Upper Canada. To make matters even worse a group of Canadian volunteers led by Joseph Willcocks had joined the American forces. These traitors began to help the Americans attack and burn a number of farms in Upper Canada.
Soon Willcocks and the American militia were looting and burning around Niagara. Amelia Ryerse was a 16 year old girl living in the Niagara area at this time. She and her mother lived alone because her father had died when she was young. Amelia wrote in her diary about the day the American army destroyed her family farm:
"When I looked up I saw the hillside and the fields as far as the eye could reach covered with American soldiers... My mother knew instinctively what they were going to do. She entreated the commanding officer to spare her property and said that she was a widow with a young family. He answered her civilly and respectfully and regretted that his orders were to burn... Very soon we saw a column of dark smoke rise from every building and what at early morn had been a prosperous homestead, at noon there were only smoldering ruins."
This American attack was so horrible that Sir George Prevost, the lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, ordered everyone to evacuate to Kingston. However, a group of British officers decided to ignore Prevost's order. Major General John Vincent and other officers gathered soldiers and militia forces together and decided to attack the Americans and drive them from the Niagara Peninsula and protect the settlers who lived there. In early December, 1813, Colonel John Murray led a force of 378 soldiers to Forty Mile Creek and set up a base. From there they began to attack American forces. Mohawk scouts found a small group of American soldiers. This group was attacked and forced to retreat.
Joseph Willcocks decided to lead one more attack against Canadian settlers in the Niagara area before the retreat. He and a force of over 100 men attacked and burned a number of homes and farms on December 10, 1813. In one home they took out an old sick woman, laid her in the snow, and then burned her house to the ground. In total they destroyed 149 homes. Almost 400 people lost their homes and farms.
British officers saw the light from the homes burning. They led an attack against Willcocks' men and drove them away. However, much damage had been done. One of the officers wrote in his journal about the destruction he saw:
"Nothing but heaps of boats, and streets full of furniture that the inhabitants were fortunate enough to get out of their houses, met our eyes. My old quarters, Gordon’s house, was the only one standing." In the morning the British/Canadian soldiers found a number of people who had frozen to death during the night.
The British commanders were very angry about what Willcocks' actions. They led their men across the Niagara River and began to attack American settlements. They attacked and captured Fort Niagara. Then the British/Canadian soldiers attacked villages and towns and destroyed as many homes as they could over three weeks.
Campaign of 1814: British Retreat at Chippawa
Brown's Army of the North was pulled together in a last attempt to capture Canada. The Americans did not have much time. In 1814 the British had defeated Napoleon in Europe. Britain no longer need to keep soldiers in Europe to fight the French. Soon thousands of British soldiers would arrive in Canada to help protect the colonies. When these British troops arrived the American military would have a much harder time capturing Upper Canada.
On July 2, 1814, the Americans crossed the Niagara River and easily captured Fort Erie on July 3, 1814, before marching north. On July 5, they met a force of 1,800 British regulars under General Phineas Riall at Street's Creek, south of Fort Chippawa.
When General Riall saw the American army he ordered an attack. Most of the American troops were wearing grey uniforms. Only militia forces wore grey uniforms. Militia soldier were not as well trained as regular American soldiers (who wore blue uniforms). General Riall thought that if he ordered an attack the American militia would quickly retreat. Riall not know that many of the troops were not militia, but were really trained soldiers. The American army had a shortage of blue uniforms, and some regular soldiers had to wear militia uniforms.
Riall ordered his men to attack. Riall soon saw that these were not American militia troops but trained American soldiers. By this point, however, it wast too late to stop the attack. As they advanced on the American troops, and opened fire, Riall realized that these were not militia forces. However, but this point it was too late. saw that the American line was comprised of grey clad troops, he thought they were militia, and would fall back in disarray after the first few volleys. In fact, there was a blue cloth shortage at the time and grey uniforms were issued to Brown's regulars. Riall ordered an advance, but when the American line continued to hold under British fire, he realized too late that he was mistaken and exclaimed "Those are regulars by God."
When the lines were less then 100 meters apart. Winfield Scott ordered his brigade to form into a "U" shape, and they were able to pour a devastating crossfire into Riall's advancing regulars. The American cannons also opened up, and the British took heavy casualties, finally falling back toward Queenston and Burlington, destroying Chippawa Bridge to prevent pursuit. The American regulars were left to continue their advance down along the River, leading to the next engagement at the Battle of Lundy's Lane on July 25, 1814.
The Battle of Chippawa left 236 British killed, 322 wounded, and 46 missing in action; the Americans lost 61 killed, 255 wounded, and 19 missing.
NOTE: Chippawa is sometimes incorrectly spelled Chippewa. The First Nation or tribe is spelled "Chippewa".
Blood Bath at Lundy's Lane
The battle did not go well for the British at the beginning. American soldiers attacked and took over some British cannons. British soldiers attacked three times before they drove the American forces away. This battle was so fierce that British soldiers fell to the ground exhausted when the fighting stopped. They slept on the hill and did not return to their tents. As the Americans retreated from the hill they only brought back one British cannon with them. Britain kept almost all of its artillery. The American forces continued to retreat the next day. They left and returned to US territory.
Lundy's Lane was one of the bloodiest battles in the War of 1812. The British and Canadians took 878 casualties, with 84 killed, out of 3,000 men; the Americans had 853 casualties, including 171 killed.
Even after the battle was over there was still a difficult job to do. British and Canadian soldiers had to walk across the battlefield and gather the dead soldiers. Soldiers who were wounded or dying were taken to doctors at field hospitals. The dead British and Canadian soldiers were buried in a mass grave. Dead American soldiers were gathered together and burned in a large pile called a funeral pyre. A local Canadian militiaman, Christopher Buchner, who fought the Americans in his own farm fields, watched as the cedar fence rails of his family farm were used to build the funeral pyres.
British and Canadian soldiers followed the Americans back into US territory. They attacked Fort Erie where the American soldiers were quartered. They tried for several weeks to defeat Fort Erie, but failed. Eventually the British/Canadian army retreated back into Upper Canada.
The British Burn Washington
The Treaty of Ghent
By the end of 1814 it was clear that no one was going to win this war. The American government was afraid that Britain would send more troops to Upper Canada to defend the colony, and attack the United States. The British navy might begin to bombard coastal cities like New York and Boston.
Both sides agreed to meet to stop the war. On Christmas Day, 1814, Britain and the United States met in Belgium, and in the town of Ghent, and signed a treaty. It is known as the Treaty of Ghent. This treaty ended the war.
Nothing really changed as a result of the treaty. The boundary between Upper Canada and the United States did not change. Other agreements were signed, however, after the treaty. In 1818 Britain and the United States signed the Rush-Bagot Agreement. Both countries agreed not to build large warship on Canada's Great Lakes. Only ships of a certain size with a certain number of cannons (and not too large) could be built to patrol the Great Lakes. This agreement is still in affect today. If Canada or the United States wants to bring a warship into the Great Lakes it has to get the permission of the other government.
Conclusion
Who won the War of 1812? Both sides can claim victory. The United States can state that their grievances with Great Britain (which started the war) were solved. Britain (and Canada) can claim victory because they did not lose any territory as a result of the war. Canada repelled the American invaders.
Perhaps the side that lost the most in the war was the First Nations who fought with the British. Tecumseh had wanted an Indian territory to be set aside for First Nations if Britain won the war. While Britain claimed victory, it did not set this land aside. Tecumseh wanted this land to be where the state of Michigan is today. Britain could not give that land to the First Nations who fought with Tecumseh because it was part of the United States. Despite their sacrifice, and the loss of Tecumseh, the First Nations did not gain anything from the War of 1812.
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| Part 4. British North America 1760-1830 → A. American Revolution → B. Coming of the Loyalists → C. Colony of Lower Canada → D. Colony of Upper Canada → E. War of 1812 |
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