G. The Home Front & The Peace

From HCO Jr

Part 9. Canadians and World War I → A. Prelude to War → B. Mobilization for War → C. Mud & Blood → D. War in the Air & on the Sea → E. Vimy Ridge - Triumph of the Canadian Corps → F. Passchendaele & Canada's Hundred Days → G. The Home Front & The Peace

How the War Changed Canada

Relations between French and English in Canada had always been fragile. It was hoped that facing a common enemy in war might bring on some unity. However, even that modest hope was not to be realized as Sam Hughes showed obvious signs of discrimination against French-Canadians. Most recruiting posters were in English. The great majority of officers were all English and Protestant. The training manuals were all written in English. At first, separate French-Canadian regiments were not allowed, and francophone soldiers were scattered among various English-speaking (and led) battalions.

Canadians and their government were not immune from racism during World War One. Under the War Measures Act, more than 8 500 'enemy aliens' of whom over 5 000 were Ukrainians, were forcibly rounded up and put in internment camps. They were used as forced labour on such projects as Banff National Park, the logging industry in northern Quebec and Ontario, the steel mills in Ontario and Nova Scotia, and mines in several provinces. In addition, over 80 000 people, again mostly Ukrainian-Canadians, were forced to register as 'enemy aliens' and report to local authorities on a regular basis. Many communities banned the playing of the German masters such as Beethoven, Brahms, and Bach. Even the town of Berlin, Ontario, to the west of Toronto, bowed to local racism by renaming itself Kitchener.

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Paying for the War

As the number of dead and wounded rose, so too did the costs of the war. Financing the war was an immense undertaking. On average, conducting the war cost more than one million dollars a day. Clearly, government revenues were grossly insufficient to bear that kind of financial burden. Thus, the government resorted to a number of strategies to address the shortfall.

At first, the government had promoted major conservation drives. Victory Gardens were encouraged. About 12 000 young boys, aged 15 to 19, enrolled in the Soldiers of the Land program, and assisted on farms. However, as the war dragged on, they proved to be woefully inadequate. Loans came from the United States and were helpful, but inadequate. So, the government began borrowing from its own citizens in the form of war loans and 'Victory Bonds' (the first form of Canadian Savings Bonds).

In 1915, the Borden's Conservative government issued a 'war loan' that raised almost $180 million. Individual Canadian investors were promised a five percent return on their money. Given the huge success of the program - it was originally expected to raise a mere $50 million - the government followed it up with two similar loans in 1916 and 1917 that combined raised more than $450 million. A second strategy was a slightly different kind of war loan called "victory bonds." Issued to the general public and marketed as a patriotic investment, they promised a 5.5% rate of return. More than three million Canadians bought them, raising in excess of $1.7 billion.

Victory Bonds Poster

Patriotic Canadians purchased over one billion dollars worth of bonds. The government guaranteed that the full face value of the bond would be repaid at the conclusion of the war. These 'Victory Bonds' covered nearly 80% of the total costs of the war. However, they did give the government an additional headache - a sizable national debt.

Still that was not enough to cover the economic costs of the war. Additional ways had to be found. The government had already asked for - and received - a commitment from organized labour to put a freeze on wages. The final part of the government's war financing plan was a direct tax. In 1916, Borden's Conservative government passed a business tax, which was soon followed in 1917 by a 'temporary' personal income tax. That 'temporary' measure was introduced and has never yet been rescinded! The Wartime Income Tax collected three percent from individuals making more than $1 500 a year and from families earning in excess of $3 000. By 1918, the war was costing Canada over a million dollars a day.

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The New Production Economy

War Savings Stamps Poster

As Minister of Militia, Sam Hughes had negotiated the procurement of all supplies for the armed forces. He was not above rewarding his friends with lucrative contracts, which sometimes resulted in shoddy goods. We have already seen the problems he got into with the Ross rifle as well as the MacAdam shovel. But they were not the only fiascos. Over two million shoes were shipped to Europe, only to have it discovered that they had cardboard soles. They were quickly nicknamed after the Minister of Militia - "Sham Shoes."

Borden's 1915 creation of a War Purchasing Commission ousted Hughes and brought greater sense and rationality to supplying the troops. There were similar problems with Hughes's Shell Committee, which produced a meager number of shells in the early years of the war, as well as producing some that exploded prematurely. Once again Borden stepped in by establishing the Imperial Munitions Board at the end of 1915.

Produce Posters

Balanced against the costs of equiping Canada's armed forces, Canada became a major supplier to Britain through the Imperial Munitions Board. The war created a vast demand for Canadian farm and factory production. With so many Canadian men overseas, women came into business and industry in unprecedented numbers. As in other countries, their enhanced economic role led to demands for voting rights.

Industrial production greatly increased during the war years. Especially important was the production of war munitions. By 1918, plants manufacturing planes, shells, guns, and ships employed more than 300 000 workers. To keep pace with the growing demand, many factories were forced to hire women. In fact, about one-tenth of all the munitions workers were women. There was labour peace during the duration of the war as the War Cabinet passed orders prohibiting strikes as well as obtaining organized labour's agreement to a wage freeze. Another Order-in-Council nationalized many of the railways in Canada as the government had to ensure efficient transportation of goods.

The Human Costs of the War

Victory Bonds Poster

If the economic costs of the war were great, the human ones were infinitely greater. Proportionately, Canada paid a tremendous price. In a nation of 8 million people, more than 620 000 served in the armed forces. Of those, more than 60 000 died and another 172 000 were wounded, some several times, and this does not include the mental and emotional casualties, which no one recorded. That becomes even more staggering when you consider the fact that there were only 1.5 million men of military age out of that 8 million. That effectively meant that over 41% of those eligible to serve, did serve. The influenza epidemic that followed the war hit soldiers and civilians alike, exhausted after four years of hard work and rationing. Scarcely a community in Canada escaped the dreadful effects of the war without casualties and broken lives.

While the casualty lists grew ever longer, the volunteer lines shrank noticeably. For instance, in January 1917, enlistments were over 9 100, while casualties were under 4 400. However, by November 1917, enlistments had fallen to 4 000, while casualties had risen to almost 31 000. Something clearly had to be done. Either Borden would have to go back on his 'sacred commitment' (as he termed it) to the Allies of maintaining four divisions in Europe, something that he was not prepared to do. Or else voluntary enlistments would suddenly, and remarkably, have to be increase. Again, this was something highly unlikely, given the stories - and bodies - that were coming from the war front.

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Recruitment Poster

Conscription & French Canada

There was another option - conscription, or compulsory military service. Britain and New Zealand had both already enacted conscription measures. So too did the United States when they entered the war in April 1917. However, Borden understood all too well the political sensitivity of the issue in Canada. He had seen how the issue had vexed Laurier and turned English against French in Canada during the Boer War at the turn of century. He knew that invoking conscription was extremely risky. Quebec would vote overwhelmingly against it. So too would many western farmers as they too needed their sons on the farm.

Borden was won over to the idea of conscription in the aftermath of the Imperial Conference of 1917. After making some important contributions to the Conference, Borden visited Canadian soldiers in training and in hospitals in Britain. He also visited Canadian troops fighting on the front lines in France. The appalling conditions, his 'sacred commitment,' and the sheer reality of the numbers involved, convinced him that conscription was the only viable solution.

On June 11, 1917, Borden introduced his conscription measure to the House of Commons. Within a week, there were anti-conscription riots in Montreal. That was not the only place of protest. Farmers complained that the exemptions given at the start of the war for their sons had now been taken away. Labour leaders too, were opposed to a draft and they considered calling a general strike.

Henri Bourassa

Henri Bourassa emerged as the champion of the French Canadians and the chief opponent of conscription. He argued that his people had no duty to die as martyrs in a foreign war. To make matters worse, Bourassa argued that the war was an imperialistic struggle that had little, if anything, to do with Canadian security. Young French Canadians were needed on the farms. Bourassa touched a sensitive nerve when he claimed that Germany did not threaten Canadian liberties. However, in his estimation, English Canadians did. And he pointed to the passage of Regulation 17 passed in Ontario in 1912, which effectively eliminated French as a language of instruction in the province's schools.

Voting in the House of Commons went strictly along linguistic lines. Every French Canadian member voted against the bill, while virtually every English Canadian MP voted for it. (The final vote was 102 to 44.) The Military Service Act (conscription) became law on August 29, 1917. It compelled all able-bodied males between the age of 20 and 34 to serve in the armed forces. Some exceptions were made for conscientious objectors, those working in essential war industries, or those whose families might suffer if they were drafted. Further riots occurred when conscripts refused to answer the call. The country was badly divided, and this was occurring during war, a time when a premium was placed on unity. Borden recognized that he had to do something. He could not rescind the bill. What he could do was seek the approval of the people by calling a wartime election.

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The Khaki Election

Borden's chances for victory in the 1917 'Khaki election' improved when a number of English Liberals declared their support for Borden and committed to join a Union (coalition) government if elected. Laurier faced a dilemma. If he joined the Borden's Union government, he risked losing French Canadian support. If he refused, he would split his Liberal party and ensure its defeat in the election. He ultimately chose to reject Borden's invitation and remained opposed to Borden, the Union government, and conscription.

Borden, ever the wily politician, recognized that the election would be a difficult one. To enhance his Union Party's chances of success, he rigged the election by passing three important bills. The Military Voters Act gave the vote to all members of the Canadian armed forces, including nurses and other women serving overseas, irrespective of how long they had lived in Canada. These individuals were very likely to support conscription and the Union side.

Nurses Voting in France, 1917

The Wartime Elections Act gave the vote to wives, daughters, and sisters of men fighting overseas. They too would strongly support conscription, seeing it as a way to get significant numbers of troops to Europe, to win the war and hopefully save the lives of their loved ones. The third bill took the vote away from immigrants who had arrived in Canada from enemy nations within the last 15 years. That effectively took the vote away from 30 000 Canadians. The same bill also removed voting rights from conscientious objectors and pacifists. Once again, these individuals were likely, for a variety of reasons, to oppose the conscription and the Union government. (Conscription itself, by the way, proved to be something of a disaster. Not only had it split the country. But in addition, over 80% of those conscripted appealed to be exempt, usually citing as the reason that it would create hardship for their families. Of the 100 000 men conscripted, only 24 000 reached European battlefields before the war ended.)

The election campaign was an exceedingly bitter one. However, in the end, Borden's no nonsense tactics helped him prevail. His Union side captured 153 seats, while Laurier's Liberals won only 82 seats. The isolation of Quebec was complete as Laurier took 62 of the 65 seats from his home province of Quebec. Borden's decision to introduce conscription along with Macdonald's decision to go ahead with Louis Riel's execution in 1885, were the two crucial events that served to politically divorce Quebec from the Conservative Party.

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Progress For Women

Grace Macpherson, an Ambulance Driver at the Front

The war did much to advance the cause of women in Canada. Almost 2 500 nurses served in field hospitals on the Continent or in convalescent hospitals in Europe, and 46 died. Several hundred other women served as ambulance drivers and staff personnel. About one thousand Canadian women served in the Royal Flying Corps, mostly as drivers. Scores more served as volunteers in the Red Cross.

Women in Canada made enormous strides during the war years. As over 600 000 men served overseas, their labour back home had to be replaced. So tens of thousands of women, often for the first time, assumed factory and office jobs.

Canadian Nursing Sisters on Leave

Some worked in victory bond drives. Others tried to get more men to enlist by engaging in the 'white feather campaign.' Many spent their free time knitting socks and garments for the troops overseas or leading children on conservation drives. An essential contribution that women made to the war effort was by joining the labour force.

Over 30 000 women joined the work force during the war years. The variety of jobs that they undertook was immense - war munitions plants, textile factories, aircraft assembly factories, shipyards, steel mills, bus drivers, banks, law offices, and insurance companies. As critical as they were in towns and cities, they were even more important taking over the farms in the countryside. Thousands of women were forced to take over and run the family farm as their husbands, brothers, and uncles went to fight in Europe.

In all these efforts, women proved their worth. They had successfully broken the stereotype of traditional male and female occupations. Clearly, a woman could do any job that a man could do. Aside from their tremendous efforts in the workplace, women also did great work in many different fields of voluntary services. Not surprisingly, women began demanding rights to better reflect their invaluable contributions. The suffragette movement had been attempting to win women the right to vote for some time. However, now with their wartime efforts, it took on greater urgency. The three prairie provinces, beginning with Manitoba, gave women the right to vote in 1916. Other provinces followed fairly quickly, with the exception of Quebec which waited until 1940.

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A Canada Altered

Canada was now home to over half a million veterans of war, many of whom were crippled or would have to spend the rest of their lives in hospital. Some 619,000 Canadians had served in the Army. As well, 23,000 Canadians served in Britain's Royal Flying Corps (RFC) (which later became the Royal Air Force),. Over 1,600 of these fliers died in combat. Ten of the 27 aces in the RFC were Canadian. At sea, 5,500 Canadians served in the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), and another 3,000 served in the British Royal Navy.

John Byam Lister Shaw's "The Flag"

Fully one-third of those who had served in uniform were killed or wounded during the war. Few had previously been professional soldiers. The Canadian Corps was largely an army of citizen-soldiers, from every corner of Canada and every walk of life. Now they returned to reap the rewards of peace, and were helped by the soldier settlement boards to buy farms or houses, or get further education.

A final tragedy was inflicted on the people of Canada at the end of the First World War - the Spanish flu (or influenza). The global pandemic, brought to North America by returning soldiers, killed more than 21 million people around the world, more than twice as many that had been killed in all of the war years. More than 50 000 Canadians succumbed to the ravages of the disease, almost as many as were killed in the war. By 1919 the epidemic had burnt itself out, leaving Canadians in a country utterly changed.

As much as World War One changed the face of Europe, it had a tremendous impact on Canada. Economically, as most wars do, it boosted the economy. But at the same time, it led to a national debt as well as the introduction of government savings bonds as well as business and personal taxes. Conscription was an exceedingly divisive event for Canada in the midst of war. At a time when unity was all-important, Borden's decision to implement a draft, served to divide the nation. Nothing perhaps revealed that as much as the acrimonious 'Khaki Election. Women made major progress in their struggle for equal rights because of the great wartime contributions that they made. In short, Canada was greatly altered, and irrevocably so, by the war years of 1914 to 1918.

"They shall grow not old,

as we that are left grow old;

Age shall not weary them,

nor the years condemn.

At the going down of the sun

and in the morning

We will remember them."

Laurence Binyon, "For the Fallen"
repeated reverently at each meeting of the Royal Canadian Legion.